Collecting transactional execution characteristics during transactional execution

ABSTRACT

Execution of a transaction may be initiated by a CPU in a transactional execution (TX) environment. A set of TX performance characteristics of the transaction during the transactional execution may be collected and stored in a location specified by an instruction of the transaction when the transactional execution ends or aborts.

BACKGROUND

This disclosure relates generally to execution of instructions by acomputer, and more specifically to execution of instructions in atransactional execution environment.

The number of central processing unit (CPU) cores on a chip and thenumber of CPU cores connected to a shared memory continues to growsignificantly to support growing workload capacity demand. Theincreasing number of CPUs cooperating to process the same workloads putsa significant burden on software scalability; for example, shared queuesor data-structures protected by traditional semaphores become hot spotsand lead to sub-linear n-way scaling curves. Traditionally this has beencountered by implementing finer-grained locking in software, and withlower latency/higher bandwidth interconnects in hardware. Implementingfine-grained locking to improve software scalability can be verycomplicated and error-prone, and at today's CPU frequencies, thelatencies of hardware interconnects are limited by the physicaldimension of the chips and systems, and by the speed of light.

Implementations of hardware Transactional Memory (HTM, or in thisdiscussion, simply TM) have been introduced, wherein a group ofinstructions—called a transaction—operate in an atomic manner on a datastructure in memory, as viewed by other central processing units (CPUs)and the I/O subsystem (atomic operation is also known as “blockconcurrent” or “serialized” in other literature). The transactionexecutes optimistically without obtaining a lock, but may need to abortand retry the transaction execution if an operation, of the executingtransaction, on a memory location conflicts with another operation onthe same memory location. Previously, software transactional memoryimplementations have been proposed to support software TransactionalMemory (TM). However, hardware TM can provide improved performanceaspects and ease of use over software TM.

U.S. Pat. No. 8,229,907 B2, titled “Hardware Accelerated TransactionalMemory System with Open Nested Transactions”, by Gray et al., filed Jun.30, 2009, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses ahardware assisted transactional memory system with open nestedtransactions. Embodiments include a system whereby hardware accelerationof transactions can be accomplished by implementing open nestedtransaction in hardware which respect software locks such that a toplevel transaction can be implemented in software, and thus not belimited by hardware constraints typical when using hardwaretransactional memory systems.

According to U.S. Pat. No. 7,536,517 B2, titled “Direct-update SoftwareTransactional Memory” by Harris, filed Jul. 29, 2005, incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety, a transactional memory programminginterface allows a thread to directly and safely access one or moreshared memory locations within a transaction while maintaining controlstructures to manage memory accesses to those same locations by one ormore other concurrent threads. Each memory location accessed by thethread is associated with an enlistment record, and each threadmaintains a transaction log of its memory accesses. Within atransaction, a read operation is performed directly on the memorylocation, and a write operation is attempted directly on the memorylocation, as opposed to some intermediate buffer. The thread can detectinconsistencies between the enlistment record of a memory location andthe thread's transaction log to determine whether the memory accesseswithin the transaction are not reliable and the transaction should bere-tried.

SUMMARY

According to an embodiment of the present disclosure, a computerimplemented method for collecting transactional execution (TX)performance characteristics of a transaction in a TX environment mayinitiate a transactional execution of the transaction, and collect a setof TX performance characteristics of the transaction during thetransactional execution. The method may store the collected set of TXperformance characteristics in a specified location upon any one ofsuccessfully ending the transaction and aborting the transaction. Thespecified location may be specified by an instruction of thetransaction.

According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a computersystem for collecting transactional execution (TX) performancecharacteristics of a transaction in a TX environment may include amemory and a processor in communications with the memory. The computersystem may be configured to perform a method. The method may initiate atransactional execution of the transaction, and collect a set of TXperformance characteristics of the transaction during the transactionalexecution. The method may store the collected set of TX performancecharacteristics in a specified location upon any one of successfullyending the transaction and aborting the transaction. The specifiedlocation may be specified by an instruction of the transaction.

According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a computerprogram product for collecting transactional execution (TX) performancecharacteristics of a transaction in a TX environment may include acomputer readable storage medium readable by a processing circuit andstoring instructions for execution by the processing circuit forperforming a method. The method may store the collected set of TXperformance characteristics in a specified location upon any one ofsuccessfully ending the transaction and aborting the transaction. Thespecified location may be specified by an instruction of thetransaction.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

One or more aspects of the present invention are particularly pointedout and distinctly claimed as examples in the claims at the conclusionof the specification. The foregoing and other objects, features, andadvantages of the invention are apparent from the following detaileddescription taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings inwhich:

FIGS. 1 and 2 depict an example multicore Transactional Memoryenvironment, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 3 depicts example components of an example CPU, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 4 is a flowchart depicting storing TX performance characteristicsof a transaction in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure;

FIG. 5 is a block diagram depicting storing TX performancecharacteristics of a transaction in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure;

FIG. 6 is a block diagram depicting a list of objects, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 7 is a block diagram depicting a list of objects, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 8 is a block diagram depicting a list of objects, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary format of a TBEGINinstruction, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary format of a TBEGINinstruction, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure;and

FIG. 11 is a block diagram depicting a computer system, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Historically, a computer system or processor had only a single processor(aka processing unit or central processing unit). The processor includedan instruction processing unit (IPU), a branch unit, a memory controlunit and the like. Such processors were capable of executing a singlethread of a program at a time. Operating systems were developed thatcould time-share a processor by dispatching a program to be executed onthe processor for a period of time, and then dispatching another programto be executed on the processor for another period of time. Astechnology evolved, memory subsystem caches were often added to theprocessor as well as complex dynamic address translation includingtranslation lookaside buffers (TLBs). The IPU itself was often referredto as a processor. As technology continued to evolve, an entireprocessor, could be packaged in a single semiconductor chip or die, sucha processor was referred to as a microprocessor. Then processors weredeveloped that incorporated multiple IPUs, such processors were oftenreferred to as multi-processors. Each such processor of amulti-processor computer system (processor) may include individual orshared caches, memory interfaces, system bus, address translationmechanism and the like. Virtual machine and instruction set architecture(ISA) emulators added a layer of software to a processor, that providedthe virtual machine with multiple “virtual processors” (aka processors)by time-slice usage of a single IPU in a single hardware processor. Astechnology further evolved, multi-threaded processors were developed,enabling a single hardware processor having a single multi-thread IPU toprovide a capability of simultaneously executing threads of differentprograms, thus each thread of a multi-threaded processor appeared to theoperating system as a processor. As technology further evolved, it waspossible to put multiple processors (each having an IPU) on a singlesemiconductor chip or die. These processors were referred to processorcores or just cores. Thus the terms such as processor, centralprocessing unit, processing unit, microprocessor, core, processor core,processor thread, and thread, for example, are often usedinterchangeably. Aspects of embodiments herein may be practiced by anyor all processors including those shown supra, without departing fromthe teachings herein. Wherein the term “thread” or “processor thread” isused herein, it is expected that particular advantage of the embodimentmay be had in a processor thread implementation.

Transaction Execution in Intel® Based Embodiments

In “Intel® Architecture Instruction Set Extensions ProgrammingReference” 319433-012A, February 2012, incorporated herein by referencein its entirety, Chapter 8 teaches, in part, that multithreadedapplications may take advantage of increasing numbers of CPU cores toachieve higher performance. However, the writing of multi-threadedapplications requires programmers to understand and take into accountdata sharing among the multiple threads. Access to shared data typicallyrequires synchronization mechanisms. These synchronization mechanismsare used to ensure that multiple threads update shared data byserializing operations that are applied to the shared data, oftenthrough the use of a critical section that is protected by a lock. Sinceserialization limits concurrency, programmers try to limit the overheaddue to synchronization.

Intel® Transactional Synchronization Extensions (Intel® TSX) allow aprocessor to dynamically determine whether threads need to be serializedthrough lock-protected critical sections, and to perform thatserialization only when required. This allows the processor to exposeand exploit concurrency that is hidden in an application because ofdynamically unnecessary synchronization.

With Intel TSX, programmer-specified code regions (also referred to as“transactional regions” or just “transactions”) are executedtransactionally. If the transactional execution completes successfully,then all memory operations performed within the transactional regionwill appear to have occurred instantaneously when viewed from otherprocessors. A processor makes the memory operations of the executedtransaction, performed within the transactional region, visible to otherprocessors only when a successful commit occurs, i.e., when thetransaction successfully completes execution. This process is oftenreferred to as an atomic commit.

Intel TSX provides two software interfaces to specify regions of codefor transactional execution. Hardware Lock Elision (HLE) is a legacycompatible instruction set extension (comprising the XACQUIRE andXRELEASE prefixes) to specify transactional regions. RestrictedTransactional Memory (RTM) is a new instruction set interface(comprising the XBEGIN, XEND, and XABORT instructions) for programmersto define transactional regions in a more flexible manner than thatpossible with HLE. HLE is for programmers who prefer the backwardcompatibility of the conventional mutual exclusion programming model andwould like to run HLE-enabled software on legacy hardware but would alsolike to take advantage of the new lock elision capabilities on hardwarewith HLE support. RTM is for programmers who prefer a flexible interfaceto the transactional execution hardware. In addition, Intel TSX alsoprovides an XTEST instruction. This instruction allows software to querywhether the logical processor is transactionally executing in atransactional region identified by either HLE or RTM.

Since a successful transactional execution ensures an atomic commit, theprocessor executes the code region optimistically without explicitsynchronization. If synchronization was unnecessary for that specificexecution, execution can commit without any cross-thread serialization.If the processor cannot commit atomically, then the optimistic executionfails. When this happens, the processor will roll back the execution, aprocess referred to as a transactional abort. On a transactional abort,the processor will discard all updates performed in the memory regionused by the transaction, restore architectural state to appear as if theoptimistic execution never occurred, and resume executionnon-transactionally.

A processor can perform a transactional abort for numerous reasons. Aprimary reason to abort a transaction is due to conflicting memoryaccesses between the transactionally executing logical processor andanother logical processor. Such conflicting memory accesses may preventa successful transactional execution. Memory addresses read from withina transactional region constitute the read-set of the transactionalregion and addresses written to within the transactional regionconstitute the write-set of the transactional region. Intel TSXmaintains the read- and write-sets at the granularity of a cache line. Aconflicting memory access occurs if another logical processor eitherreads a location that is part of the transactional region's write-set orwrites a location that is a part of either the read- or write-set of thetransactional region. A conflicting access typically means thatserialization is required for this code region. Since Intel TSX detectsdata conflicts at the granularity of a cache line, unrelated datalocations placed in the same cache line will be detected as conflictsthat result in transactional aborts. Transactional aborts may also occurdue to limited transactional resources. For example, the amount of dataaccessed in the region may exceed an implementation-specific capacity.Additionally, some instructions and system events may causetransactional aborts. Frequent transactional aborts result in wastedcycles and increased inefficiency.

Hardware Lock Elision

Hardware Lock Elision (HLE) provides a legacy compatible instruction setinterface for programmers to use transactional execution. HLE providestwo new instruction prefix hints: XACQUIRE and XRELEASE.

With HLE, a programmer adds the XACQUIRE prefix to the front of theinstruction that is used to acquire the lock that is protecting thecritical section. The processor treats the prefix as a hint to elide thewrite associated with the lock acquire operation. Even though the lockacquire has an associated write operation to the lock, the processordoes not add the address of the lock to the transactional region'swrite-set nor does it issue any write requests to the lock. Instead, theaddress of the lock is added to the read-set. The logical processorenters transactional execution. If the lock was available before theXACQUIRE prefixed instruction, then all other processors will continueto see the lock as available afterwards. Since the transactionallyexecuting logical processor neither added the address of the lock to itswrite-set nor performed externally visible write operations to the lock,other logical processors can read the lock without causing a dataconflict. This allows other logical processors to also enter andconcurrently execute the critical section protected by the lock. Theprocessor automatically detects any data conflicts that occur during thetransactional execution and will perform a transactional abort ifnecessary.

Even though the eliding processor did not perform any external writeoperations to the lock, the hardware ensures program order of operationson the lock. If the eliding processor itself reads the value of the lockin the critical section, it will appear as if the processor had acquiredthe lock, i.e. the read will return the non-elided value. This behaviorallows an HLE execution to be functionally equivalent to an executionwithout the HLE prefixes.

An XRELEASE prefix can be added in front of an instruction that is usedto release the lock protecting a critical section. Releasing the lockinvolves a write to the lock. If the instruction is to restore the valueof the lock to the value the lock had prior to the XACQUIRE prefixedlock acquire operation on the same lock, then the processor elides theexternal write request associated with the release of the lock and doesnot add the address of the lock to the write-set. The processor thenattempts to commit the transactional execution.

With HLE, if multiple threads execute critical sections protected by thesame lock but they do not perform any conflicting operations on eachother's data, then the threads can execute concurrently and withoutserialization. Even though the software uses lock acquisition operationson a common lock, the hardware recognizes this, elides the lock, andexecutes the critical sections on the two threads without requiring anycommunication through the lock—if such communication was dynamicallyunnecessary.

If the processor is unable to execute the region transactionally, thenthe processor will execute the region non-transactionally and withoutelision. HLE enabled software has the same forward progress guaranteesas the underlying non-HLE lock-based execution. For successful HLEexecution, the lock and the critical section code must follow certainguidelines. These guidelines only affect performance; and failure tofollow these guidelines will not result in a functional failure.Hardware without HLE support will ignore the XACQUIRE and XRELEASEprefix hints and will not perform any elision since these prefixescorrespond to the REPNE/REPE IA-32 prefixes which are ignored on theinstructions where XACQUIRE and XRELEASE are valid. Importantly, HLE iscompatible with the existing lock-based programming model. Improper useof hints will not cause functional bugs though it may expose latent bugsalready in the code.

Restricted Transactional Memory (RTM) provides a flexible softwareinterface for transactional execution. RTM provides three newinstructions—XBEGIN, XEND, and XABORT—for programmers to start, commit,and abort a transactional execution.

The programmer uses the XBEGIN instruction to specify the start of atransactional code region and the XEND instruction to specify the end ofthe transactional code region. If the RTM region could not besuccessfully executed transactionally, then the XBEGIN instruction takesan operand that provides a relative offset to the fallback instructionaddress.

A processor may abort RTM transactional execution for many reasons. Inmany instances, the hardware automatically detects transactional abortconditions and restarts execution from the fallback instruction addresswith the architectural state corresponding to that present at the startof the XBEGIN instruction and the EAX register updated to describe theabort status.

The XABORT instruction allows programmers to abort the execution of anRTM region explicitly. The XABORT instruction takes an 8-bit immediateargument that is loaded into the EAX register and will thus be availableto software following an RTM abort. RTM instructions do not have anydata memory location associated with them. While the hardware providesno guarantees as to whether an RTM region will ever successfully committransactionally, most transactions that follow the recommendedguidelines are expected to successfully commit transactionally. However,programmers must always provide an alternative code sequence in thefallback path to guarantee forward progress. This may be as simple asacquiring a lock and executing the specified code regionnon-transactionally. Further, a transaction that always aborts on agiven implementation may complete transactionally on a futureimplementation. Therefore, programmers must ensure the code paths forthe transactional region and the alternative code sequence arefunctionally tested.

Detection of HLE Support

A processor supports HLE execution if CPUID.07H.EBX.HLE [bit 4]=1.However, an application can use the HLE prefixes (XACQUIRE and XRELEASE)without checking whether the processor supports HLE. Processors withoutHLE support ignore these prefixes and will execute the code withoutentering transactional execution.

Detection of RTM Support

A processor supports RTM execution if CPUID.07H.EBX.RTM [bit 11]=1. Anapplication must check if the processor supports RTM before it uses theRTM instructions (XBEGIN, XEND, XABORT). These instructions willgenerate a #UD exception when used on a processor that does not supportRTM.

Detection of XTEST Instruction

A processor supports the XTEST instruction if it supports either HLE orRTM. An application must check either of these feature flags beforeusing the XTEST instruction. This instruction will generate a #UDexception when used on a processor that does not support either HLE orRTM.

Querying Transactional Execution Status

The XTEST instruction can be used to determine the transactional statusof a transactional region specified by HLE or RTM. Note, while the HLEprefixes are ignored on processors that do not support HLE, the XTESTinstruction will generate a #UD exception when used on processors thatdo not support either HLE or RTM.

Requirements for HLE Locks

For HLE execution to successfully commit transactionally, the lock mustsatisfy certain properties and access to the lock must follow certainguidelines.

An XRELEASE prefixed instruction must restore the value of the elidedlock to the value it had before the lock acquisition. This allowshardware to safely elide locks by not adding them to the write-set. Thedata size and data address of the lock release (XRELEASE prefixed)instruction must match that of the lock acquire (XACQUIRE prefixed) andthe lock must not cross a cache line boundary.

Software should not write to the elided lock inside a transactional HLEregion with any instruction other than an XRELEASE prefixed instruction,otherwise such a write may cause a transactional abort. In addition,recursive locks (where a thread acquires the same lock multiple timeswithout first releasing the lock) may also cause a transactional abort.Note that software can observe the result of the elided lock acquireinside the critical section. Such a read operation will return the valueof the write to the lock.

The processor automatically detects violations to these guidelines, andsafely transitions to a non-transactional execution without elision.Since Intel TSX detects conflicts at the granularity of a cache line,writes to data collocated on the same cache line as the elided lock maybe detected as data conflicts by other logical processors eliding thesame lock.

Transactional Nesting

Both HLE and RTM support nested transactional regions. However, atransactional abort restores state to the operation that startedtransactional execution: either the outermost XACQUIRE prefixed HLEeligible instruction or the outermost XBEGIN instruction. The processortreats all nested transactions as one transaction.

HLE Nesting and Elision

Programmers can nest HLE regions up to an implementation specific depthof MAX_HLE_NEST_COUNT. Each logical processor tracks the nesting countinternally but this count is not available to software. An XACQUIREprefixed HLE-eligible instruction increments the nesting count, and anXRELEASE prefixed HLE-eligible instruction decrements it. The logicalprocessor enters transactional execution when the nesting count goesfrom zero to one. The logical processor attempts to commit only when thenesting count becomes zero. A transactional abort may occur if thenesting count exceeds MAX_HLE_NEST_COUNT.

In addition to supporting nested HLE regions, the processor can alsoelide multiple nested locks. The processor tracks a lock for elisionbeginning with the XACQUIRE prefixed HLE eligible instruction for thatlock and ending with the XRELEASE prefixed HLE eligible instruction forthat same lock. The processor can, at any one time, track up to aMAX_HLE_ELIDED_LOCKS number of locks. For example, if the implementationsupports a MAX_HLE_ELIDED_LOCKS value of two and if the programmer neststhree HLE identified critical sections (by performing XACQUIRE prefixedHLE eligible instructions on three distinct locks without performing anintervening XRELEASE prefixed HLE eligible instruction on any one of thelocks), then the first two locks will be elided, but the third won't beelided (but will be added to the transaction's writeset). However, theexecution will still continue transactionally. Once an XRELEASE for oneof the two elided locks is encountered, a subsequent lock acquiredthrough the XACQUIRE prefixed HLE eligible instruction will be elided.

The processor attempts to commit the HLE execution when all elidedXACQUIRE and XRELEASE pairs have been matched, the nesting count goes tozero, and the locks have satisfied requirements. If execution cannotcommit atomically, then execution transitions to a non-transactionalexecution without elision as if the first instruction did not have anXACQUIRE prefix.

RTM Nesting

Programmers can nest RTM regions up to an implementation specificMAX_RTM_NEST_COUNT. The logical processor tracks the nesting countinternally but this count is not available to software. An XBEGINinstruction increments the nesting count, and an XEND instructiondecrements the nesting count. The logical processor attempts to commitonly if the nesting count becomes zero. A transactional abort occurs ifthe nesting count exceeds MAX_RTM_NEST_COUNT.

Nesting HLE and RTM

HLE and RTM provide two alternative software interfaces to a commontransactional execution capability. Transactional processing behavior isimplementation specific when HLE and RTM are nested together, e.g., HLEis inside RTM or RTM is inside HLE. However, in all cases, theimplementation will maintain HLE and RTM semantics. An implementationmay choose to ignore HLE hints when used inside RTM regions, and maycause a transactional abort when RTM instructions are used inside HLEregions. In the latter case, the transition from transactional tonon-transactional execution occurs seamlessly since the processor willre-execute the HLE region without actually doing elision, and thenexecute the RTM instructions.

Abort Status Definition

RTM uses the EAX register to communicate abort status to software.Following an RTM abort the EAX register has the following definition.

TABLE 1 RTM Abort Status Definition EAX Register Bit Position Meaning 0Set if abort caused by XABORT instruction 1 If set, the transaction maysucceed on retry, this bit is always clear if bit 0 is set 2 Set ifanother logical processor conflicted with a memory address that was partof the transaction that aborted 3 Set if an internal buffer overflowed 4Set if a debug breakpoint was hit 5 Set if an abort occurred duringexecution of a nested transaction 23:6  Reserved 31-24 XABORT argument(only valid if bit 0 set, otherwise reserved)

The EAX abort status for RTM only provides causes for aborts. It doesnot by itself encode whether an abort or commit occurred for the RTMregion. The value of EAX can be 0 following an RTM abort. For example, aCPUID instruction when used inside an RTM region causes a transactionalabort and may not satisfy the requirements for setting any of the EAXbits. This may result in an EAX value of 0.

RTM Memory Ordering

A successful RTM commit causes all memory operations in the RTM regionto appear to execute atomically. A successfully committed RTM regionconsisting of an XBEGIN followed by an XEND, even with no memoryoperations in the RTM region, has the same ordering semantics as a LOCKprefixed instruction.

The XBEGIN instruction does not have fencing semantics. However, if anRTM execution aborts, then all memory updates from within the RTM regionare discarded and are not made visible to any other logical processor.

RTM-Enabled Debugger Support

By default, any debug exception inside an RTM region will cause atransactional abort and will redirect control flow to the fallbackinstruction address with architectural state recovered and bit 4 in EAXset. However, to allow software debuggers to intercept execution ondebug exceptions, the RTM architecture provides additional capability.

If bit 11 of DR7 and bit 15 of the IA32_DEBUGCTL_MSR are both 1, any RTMabort due to a debug exception (#DB) or breakpoint exception (#BP)causes execution to roll back and restart from the XBEGIN instructioninstead of the fallback address. In this scenario, the EAX register willalso be restored back to the point of the XBEGIN instruction.

Programming Considerations

Typical programmer-identified regions are expected to transactionallyexecute and commit successfully. However, Intel TSX does not provide anysuch guarantee. A transactional execution may abort for many reasons. Totake full advantage of the transactional capabilities, programmersshould follow certain guidelines to increase the probability of theirtransactional execution committing successfully.

This section discusses various events that may cause transactionalaborts. The architecture ensures that updates performed within atransaction that subsequently aborts execution will never becomevisible. Only committed transactional executions initiate an update tothe architectural state. Transactional aborts never cause functionalfailures and only affect performance.

Instruction Based Considerations

Programmers can use any instruction safely inside a transaction (HLE orRTM) and can use transactions at any privilege level. However, someinstructions will always abort the transactional execution and causeexecution to seamlessly and safely transition to a non-transactionalpath.

Intel TSX allows for most common instructions to be used insidetransactions without causing aborts. The following operations inside atransaction do not typically cause an abort:

-   -   Operations on the instruction pointer register, general purpose        registers (GPRs) and the status flags (CF, OF, SF, PF, AF, and        ZF); and    -   Operations on XMM and YMM registers and the MXCSR register.

However, programmers must be careful when intermixing SSE and AVXoperations inside a transactional region. Intermixing SSE instructionsaccessing XMM registers and AVX instructions accessing YMM registers maycause transactions to abort. Programmers may use REP/REPNE prefixedstring operations inside transactions. However, long strings may causeaborts. Further, the use of CLD and STD instructions may cause aborts ifthey change the value of the DF flag. However, if DF is 1, the STDinstruction will not cause an abort. Similarly, if DF is 0, then the CLDinstruction will not cause an abort.

Instructions not enumerated here as causing abort when used inside atransaction will typically not cause a transaction to abort (examplesinclude but are not limited to MFENCE, LFENCE, SFENCE, RDTSC, RDTSCP,etc.).

The following instructions will abort transactional execution on anyimplementation:

XABORT

CPUID

PAUSE

In addition, in some implementations, the following instructions mayalways cause transactional aborts. These instructions are not expectedto be commonly used inside typical transactional regions. However,programmers must not rely on these instructions to force a transactionalabort, since whether they cause transactional aborts is implementationdependent.

-   -   Operations on X87 and MMX architecture state. This includes all        MMX and X87 instructions, including the FXRSTOR and FXSAVE        instructions.    -   Update to non-status portion of EFLAGS: CLI, STI, POPFD, POPFQ,        CLTS.    -   Instructions that update segment registers, debug registers        and/or control registers: MOV to DS/ES/FS/GS/SS, POP        DS/ES/FS/GS/SS, LDS, LES, LFS, LGS, LSS, SWAPGS, WRFSBASE,        WRGSBASE, LGDT, SGDT, LIDT, SIDT, LLDT, SLDT, LTR, STR, Far        CALL, Far JMP, Far RET, IRET, MOV to DRx, MOV to        CR0/CR2/CR3/CR4/CR8 and LMSW.    -   Ring transitions: SYSENTER, SYSCALL, SYSEXIT, and SYSRET.    -   TLB and Cacheability control: CLFLUSH, INVD, WBINVD, INVLPG,        INVPCID, and memory instructions with a non-temporal hint        (MOVNTDQA, MOVNTDQ, MOVNTI, MOVNTPD, MOVNTPS, and MOVNTQ).    -   Processor state save: XSAVE, XSAVEOPT, and XRSTOR.    -   Interrupts: INTn, INTO.    -   IO: IN, INS, REP INS, OUT, OUTS, REP OUTS and their variants.    -   VMX: VMPTRLD, VMPTRST, VMCLEAR, VMREAD, VMWRITE, VMCALL,        VMLAUNCH, VMRESUME, VMXOFF, VMXON, INVEPT, and INVVPID.    -   SMX: GETSEC.    -   UD2, RSM, RDMSR, WRMSR, HLT, MONITOR, MWAIT, XSETBV, VZEROUPPER,        MASKMOVQ, and V/MASKMOVDQU.

Runtime Considerations

In addition to the instruction-based considerations, runtime events maycause transactional execution to abort. These may be due to data accesspatterns or micro-architectural implementation features. The followinglist is not a comprehensive discussion of all abort causes.

Any fault or trap in a transaction that must be exposed to software willbe suppressed. Transactional execution will abort and execution willtransition to a non-transactional execution, as if the fault or trap hadnever occurred. If an exception is not masked, then that un-maskedexception will result in a transactional abort and the state will appearas if the exception had never occurred.

Synchronous exception events (#DE, #OF, #NP, #SS, #GP, #BR, #UD, #AC,#XF, #PF, #NM, #TS, #MF, #DB, #BP/INT3) that occur during transactionalexecution may cause an execution not to commit transactionally, andrequire a non-transactional execution. These events are suppressed as ifthey had never occurred. With HLE, since the non-transactional code pathis identical to the transactional code path, these events will typicallyre-appear when the instruction that caused the exception is re-executednon-transactionally, causing the associated synchronous events to bedelivered appropriately in the non-transactional execution. Asynchronousevents (NMI, SMI, INTR, IPI, PMI, etc.) occurring during transactionalexecution may cause the transactional execution to abort and transitionto a non-transactional execution. The asynchronous events will be pendedand handled after the transactional abort is processed.

Transactions only support write-back cacheable memory type operations. Atransaction may always abort if the transaction includes operations onany other memory type. This includes instruction fetches to UC memorytype.

Memory accesses within a transactional region may require the processorto set the Accessed and Dirty flags of the referenced page table entry.The behavior of how the processor handles this is implementationspecific. Some implementations may allow the updates to these flags tobecome externally visible even if the transactional region subsequentlyaborts. Some Intel TSX implementations may choose to abort thetransactional execution if these flags need to be updated. Further, aprocessor's page-table walk may generate accesses to its owntransactionally written but uncommitted state. Some Intel TSXimplementations may choose to abort the execution of a transactionalregion in such situations. Regardless, the architecture ensures that, ifthe transactional region aborts, then the transactionally written statewill not be made architecturally visible through the behavior ofstructures such as TLBs.

Executing self-modifying code transactionally may also causetransactional aborts. Programmers must continue to follow the Intelrecommended guidelines for writing self-modifying and cross-modifyingcode even when employing HLE and RTM. While an implementation of RTM andHLE will typically provide sufficient resources for executing commontransactional regions, implementation constraints and excessive sizesfor transactional regions may cause a transactional execution to abortand transition to a non-transactional execution. The architectureprovides no guarantee of the amount of resources available to dotransactional execution and does not guarantee that a transactionalexecution will ever succeed.

Conflicting requests to a cache line accessed within a transactionalregion may prevent the transaction from executing successfully. Forexample, if logical processor P0 reads line A in a transactional regionand another logical processor P1 writes line A (either inside or outsidea transactional region) then logical processor P0 may abort if logicalprocessor P1's write interferes with processor P0's ability to executetransactionally.

Similarly, if P0 writes line A in a transactional region and P1 reads orwrites line A (either inside or outside a transactional region), then P0may abort if P1's access to line A interferes with P0's ability toexecute transactionally. In addition, other coherence traffic may attimes appear as conflicting requests and may cause aborts. While thesefalse conflicts may happen, they are expected to be uncommon. Theconflict resolution policy to determine whether P0 or P1 aborts in theabove scenarios is implementation specific.

Generic Transaction Execution Embodiments

According to “ARCHITECTURES FOR TRANSACTIONAL MEMORY”, a dissertationsubmitted to the Department of Computer Science and the Committee onGraduate Studies of Stanford University in partial fulfillment of therequirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, by Austen McDonald,June 2009, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety,fundamentally, there are three mechanisms needed to implement an atomicand isolated transactional region: versioning, conflict detection, andcontention management.

To make a transactional code region appear atomic, all the modificationsperformed by that transactional code region must be stored and keptisolated from other transactions until commit time. The system does thisby implementing a versioning policy. Two versioning paradigms exist:eager and lazy. An eager versioning system stores newly generatedtransactional values in place and stores previous memory values on theside, in what is called an undo-log. A lazy versioning system stores newvalues temporarily in what is called a write buffer, copying them tomemory only on commit. In either system, the cache is used to optimizestorage of new versions.

To ensure that transactions appear to be performed atomically, conflictsmust be detected and resolved. The two systems, i.e., the eager and lazyversioning systems, detect conflicts by implementing a conflictdetection policy, either optimistic or pessimistic. An optimistic systemexecutes transactions in parallel, checking for conflicts only when atransaction commits. A pessimistic system checks for conflicts at eachload and store. Similar to versioning, conflict detection also uses thecache, marking each line as either part of the read-set, part of thewrite-set, or both. The two systems resolve conflicts by implementing acontention management policy. Many contention management policies exist,some are more appropriate for optimistic conflict detection and some aremore appropriate for pessimistic. Described below are some examplepolicies.

Since each transactional memory (TM) system needs both versioningdetection and conflict detection, these options give rise to fourdistinct TM designs: Eager-Pessimistic (EP), Eager-Optimistic (EO),Lazy-Pessimistic (LP), and Lazy-Optimistic (LO). Table 2 brieflydescribes all four distinct TM designs.

FIGS. 1 and 2 depict an example of a multicore TM environment. FIG. 1shows many TM-enabled CPUs (CPU1 114 a, CPU2 114 b, etc.) on one die100, connected with an interconnect 122, under management of aninterconnect control 120 a, 120 b. Each CPU 114 a, 114 b (also known asa Processor) may have a split cache consisting of an Instruction Cache116 a, 116 b for caching instructions from memory to be executed and aData Cache 118 a, 118 b with TM support for caching data (operands) ofmemory locations to be operated on by CPU 114 a, 114 b (in FIG. 1, eachCPU 114 a, 114 b and its associated caches are referenced as 112 a, 112b). In an implementation, caches of multiple dies 100 are interconnectedto support cache coherency between the caches of the multiple dies 100.In an implementation, a single cache, rather than the split cache isemployed holding both instructions and data. In implementations, the CPUcaches are one level of caching in a hierarchical cache structure. Forexample each die 100 may employ a shared cache 124 to be shared amongstall the CPUs on the die 100. In another implementation, each die mayhave access to a shared cache 124, shared amongst all the processors ofall the dies 100.

FIG. 2 shows the details of an example transactional CPU environment112, having a CPU 114, including additions to support TM. Thetransactional CPU (processor) 114 may include hardware for supportingRegister Checkpoints 126 and special TM Registers 128. The transactionalCPU cache may have the MESI bits 130, Tags 140 and Data 142 of aconventional cache but also, for example, R bits 132 showing a line hasbeen read by the CPU 114 while executing a transaction and W bits 138showing a line has been written-to by the CPU 114 while executing atransaction.

A key detail for programmers in any TM system is how non-transactionalaccesses interact with transactions. By design, transactional accessesare screened from each other using the mechanisms above. However, theinteraction between a regular, non-transactional load with a transactioncontaining a new value for that address must still be considered. Inaddition, the interaction between a non-transactional store and atransaction that has read that address must also be explored. These areissues of the database isolation concept.

A TM system is said to implement strong isolation, sometimes calledstrong atomicity, when every non-transactional load and store acts likean atomic transaction. Therefore, non-transactional loads cannot seeuncommitted data and non-transactional stores cause atomicity violationsin any transactions that have read that address. A system where this isnot the case is said to implement weak isolation, sometimes called weakatomicity.

Strong isolation is often more desirable than weak isolation due to therelative ease of conceptualization and implementation of strongisolation. Additionally, if a programmer has forgotten to surround someshared memory references with transactions, causing bugs, then withstrong isolation, the programmer will often detect that oversight usinga simple debug interface because the programmer will see anon-transactional region causing atomicity violations. Also, programswritten in one model may work differently on another model.

Further, strong isolation is often easier to support in hardware TM thanweak isolation. With strong isolation, since the coherence protocolalready manages load and store communication between processors,transactions can detect non-transactional loads and stores and actappropriately. To implement strong isolation in software TransactionalMemory (TM), non-transactional code must be modified to include read-and write-barriers; potentially crippling performance. Although greateffort has been expended to remove many un-needed barriers, suchtechniques are often complex and performance is typically far lower thanthat of HTMs.

TABLE 2 Transactional Memory Design Space VERSIONING Lazy Eager CONFLICTOptimistic Storing updates in a write Not practical: waiting to updateDETECTION buffer; detecting conflicts at memory until commit time butcommit time. detecting conflicts at access time guarantees wasted workand provides no advantage Pessimistic Storing updates in a writeUpdating memory, keeping old buffer; detecting conflicts at values inundo log; detecting access time. conflicts at access time.

Table 2 illustrates the fundamental design space of transactional memory(versioning and conflict detection).

Eager-Pessimistic (EP)

This first TM design described below is known as Eager-Pessimistic. AnEP system stores its write-set “in place” (hence the name “eager”) and,to support rollback, stores the old values of overwritten lines in an“undo log”. Processors use the W 138 and R 132 cache bits to track readand write-sets and detect conflicts when receiving snooped loadrequests. Perhaps the most notable examples of EP systems in knownliterature are Log TM and UTM.

Beginning a transaction in an EP system is much like beginning atransaction in other systems: tm_begin( ) takes a register checkpoint,and initializes any status registers. An EP system also requiresinitializing the undo log, the details of which are dependent on the logformat, but often involve initializing a log base pointer to a region ofpre-allocated, thread-private memory, and clearing a log boundsregister.

Versioning: In EP, due to the way eager versioning is designed tofunction, the MESI 130 state transitions (cache line indicatorscorresponding to Modified, Exclusive, Shared, and Invalid code states)are left mostly unchanged. Outside of a transaction, the MESI 130 statetransitions are left completely unchanged. When reading a line inside atransaction, the standard coherence transitions apply (S (Shared)→S, I(Invalid)→S, or I→E (Exclusive)), issuing a load miss as needed, but theR 132 bit is also set. Likewise, writing a line applies the standardtransitions (S→M, E→I, I→M), issuing a miss as needed, but also sets theW 138 (Written) bit. The first time a line is written, the old versionof the entire line is loaded then written to the undo log to preserve itin case the current transaction aborts. The newly written data is thenstored “in-place,” over the old data.

Conflict Detection: Pessimistic conflict detection uses coherencemessages exchanged on misses, or upgrades, to look for conflicts betweentransactions. When a read miss occurs within a transaction, otherprocessors receive a load request; but they ignore the request if theydo not have the needed line. If the other processors have the neededline non-speculatively or have the line R 132 (Read), they downgradethat line to S, and in certain cases issue a cache-to-cache transfer ifthey have the line in MESI's 130 M or E state. However, if the cache hasthe line W 138, then a conflict is detected between the two transactionsand additional action(s) must be taken.

Similarly, when a transaction seeks to upgrade a line from shared tomodified (on a first write), the transaction issues an exclusive loadrequest, which is also used to detect conflicts. If a receiving cachehas the line non-speculatively, then the line is invalidated, and incertain cases a cache-to-cache transfer (M or E states) is issued. But,if the line is R 132 or W 138, a conflict is detected.

Validation: Because conflict detection is performed on every load, atransaction always has exclusive access to its own write-set. Therefore,validation does not require any additional work.

Commit: Since eager versioning stores the new version of data items inplace, the commit process simply clears the W 138 and R 132 bits anddiscards the undo log.

Abort: When a transaction rolls back, the original version of each cacheline in the undo log must be restored, a process called “unrolling” or“applying” the log. This is done during tm_discard( ) and must be atomicwith regard to other transactions. Specifically, the write-set muststill be used to detect conflicts: this transaction has the only correctversion of lines in its undo log, and requesting transactions must waitfor the correct version to be restored from that log. Such a log can beapplied using a hardware state machine or software abort handler.

Eager-Pessimistic has the characteristics of: Commit is simple and sinceit is in-place, very fast. Similarly, validation is a no-op. Pessimisticconflict detection detects conflicts early, thereby reducing the numberof “doomed” transactions. For example, if two transactions are involvedin a Write-After-Read dependency, then that dependency is detectedimmediately in pessimistic conflict detection. However, in optimisticconflict detection such conflicts are not detected until the writercommits.

Eager-Pessimistic also has the characteristics of: As described above,the first time a cache line is written, the old value must be written tothe log, incurring extra cache accesses. Aborts are expensive as theyrequire undoing the log. For each cache line in the log, a load must beissued, perhaps going as far as main memory before continuing to thenext line. Pessimistic conflict detection also prevents certainserializable schedules from existing.

Additionally, because conflicts are handled as they occur, there is apotential for livelock and careful contention management mechanisms mustbe employed to guarantee forward progress.

Lazy-Optimistic (LO)

Another popular TM design is Lazy-Optimistic (LO), which stores itswrite-set in a “write buffer” or “redo log” and detects conflicts atcommit time (still using the R 132 and W 138 bits).

Versioning: Just as in the EP system, the MESI protocol of the LO designis enforced outside of the transactions. Once inside a transaction,reading a line incurs the standard MESI transitions but also sets the R132 bit. Likewise, writing a line sets the W 138 bit of the line, buthandling the MESI transitions of the LO design is different from that ofthe EP design. First, with lazy versioning, the new versions of writtendata are stored in the cache hierarchy until commit while othertransactions have access to old versions available in memory or othercaches. To make available the old versions, dirty lines (M lines) mustbe evicted when first written by a transaction. Second, no upgrademisses are needed because of the optimistic conflict detection feature:if a transaction has a line in the S state, it can simply write to itand upgrade that line to an M state without communicating the changeswith other transactions because conflict detection is done at committime.

Conflict Detection and Validation: To validate a transaction and detectconflicts, LO communicates the addresses of speculatively modified linesto other transactions only when it is preparing to commit. Onvalidation, the processor sends one, potentially large, network packetcontaining all the addresses in the write-set. Data is not sent, butleft in the cache of the committer and marked dirty (M). To build thispacket without searching the cache for lines marked W, a simple bitvector is used, called a “store buffer,” with one bit per cache line totrack these speculatively modified lines. Other transactions use thisaddress packet to detect conflicts: if an address is found in the cacheand the R 132 and/or W 138 bits are set, then a conflict is initiated.If the line is found but neither R 132 nor W 138 is set, then the lineis simply invalidated, which is similar to processing an exclusive load.

To support transaction atomicity, these address packets must be handledatomically, i.e., no two address packets may exist at once with the sameaddresses. In an LO system, this can be achieved by simply acquiring aglobal commit token before sending the address packet. However, atwo-phase commit scheme could be employed by first sending out theaddress packet, collecting responses, enforcing an ordering protocol(perhaps oldest transaction first), and committing once all responsesare satisfactory.

Commit: Once validation has occurred, commit needs no special treatment:simply clear W 138 and R 132 bits and the store buffer. Thetransaction's writes are already marked dirty in the cache and othercaches' copies of these lines have been invalidated via the addresspacket. Other processors can then access the committed data through theregular coherence protocol.

Abort: Rollback is equally easy: because the write-set is containedwithin the local caches, these lines can be invalidated, then clear W138 and R 132 bits and the store buffer. The store buffer allows W linesto be found to invalidate without the need to search the cache.

Lazy-Optimistic has the characteristics of: Aborts are very fast,requiring no additional loads or stores and making only local changes.More serializable schedules can exist than found in EP, which allows anLO system to more aggressively speculate that transactions areindependent, which can yield higher performance. Finally, the latedetection of conflicts can increase the likelihood of forward progress.

Lazy-Optimistic also has the characteristics of: Validation takes globalcommunication time proportional to size of write set. Doomedtransactions can waste work since conflicts are detected only at committime.

Lazy-Pessimistic (LP)

Lazy-Pessimistic (LP) represents a third TM design option, sittingsomewhere between EP and LO: storing newly written lines in a writebuffer but detecting conflicts on a per access basis.

Versioning: Versioning is similar but not identical to that of LO:reading a line sets its R bit 132, writing a line sets its W bit 138,and a store buffer is used to track W lines in the cache. Also, dirty(M) lines must be evicted when first written by a transaction, just asin LO. However, since conflict detection is pessimistic, load exclusivesmust be performed when upgrading a transactional line from I, S→M, whichis unlike LO.

Conflict Detection: LP's conflict detection operates the same as EP's:using coherence messages to look for conflicts between transactions.

Validation: Like in EP, pessimistic conflict detection ensures that atany point, a running transaction has no conflicts with any other runningtransaction, so validation is a no-op.

Commit: Commit needs no special treatment: simply clear W 138 and R 132bits and the store buffer, like in LO.

Abort: Rollback is also like that of LO: simply invalidate the write-setusing the store buffer and clear the W and R bits and the store buffer.

Eager-Optimistic (EO)

The LP has the characteristics of: Like LO, aborts are very fast. LikeEP, the use of pessimistic conflict detection reduces the number of“doomed” transactions Like EP, some serializable schedules are notallowed and conflict detection must be performed on each cache miss.

The final combination of versioning and conflict detection isEager-Optimistic (EO). EO may be a less than optimal choice for HTMsystems: since new transactional versions are written in-place, othertransactions have no choice but to notice conflicts as they occur (i.e.,as cache misses occur). But since EO waits until commit time to detectconflicts, those transactions become “zombies,” continuing to execute,wasting resources, yet are “doomed” to abort.

EO has proven to be useful in STMs and is implemented by Bartok-STM andMcRT. A lazy versioning STM needs to check its write buffer on each readto ensure that it is reading the most recent value. Since the writebuffer is not a hardware structure, this is expensive, hence thepreference for write-in-place eager versioning. Additionally, sincechecking for conflicts is also expensive in an STM, optimistic conflictdetection offers the advantage of performing this operation in bulk.

Contention Management

How a transaction rolls back once the system has decided to abort thattransaction has been described above, but, since a conflict involves twotransactions, the topics of which transaction should abort, how thatabort should be initiated, and when should the aborted transaction beretried need to be explored. These are topics that are addressed byContention Management (CM), a key component of transactional memory.Described below are policies regarding how the systems initiate abortsand the various established methods of managing which transactionsshould abort in a conflict.

Contention Management Policies

A Contention Management (CM) Policy is a mechanism that determines whichtransaction involved in a conflict should abort and when the abortedtransaction should be retried. For example, it is often the case thatretrying an aborted transaction immediately does not lead to the bestperformance. Conversely, employing a back-off mechanism, which delaysthe retrying of an aborted transaction, can yield better performance.STMs first grappled with finding the best contention management policiesand many of the policies outlined below were originally developed forSTMs.

CM Policies draw on a number of measures to make decisions, includingages of the transactions, size of read- and write-sets, the number ofprevious aborts, etc. The combinations of measures to make suchdecisions are endless, but certain combinations are described below,roughly in order of increasing complexity.

To establish some nomenclature, first note that in a conflict there aretwo sides: the attacker and the defender. The attacker is thetransaction requesting access to a shared memory location. Inpessimistic conflict detection, the attacker is the transaction issuingthe load or load exclusive. In optimistic, the attacker is thetransaction attempting to validate. The defender in both cases is thetransaction receiving the attacker's request.

An Aggressive CM Policy immediately and always retries either theattacker or the defender. In LO, Aggressive means that the attackeralways wins, and so Aggressive is sometimes called committer wins. Sucha policy was used for the earliest LO systems. In the case of EP,Aggressive can be either defender wins or attacker wins.

Restarting a conflicting transaction that will immediately experienceanother conflict is bound to waste work—namely interconnect bandwidthrefilling cache misses. A Polite CM Policy employs exponential backoff(but linear could also be used) before restarting conflicts. To preventstarvation, a situation where a process does not have resourcesallocated to it by the scheduler, the exponential backoff greatlyincreases the odds of transaction success after some n retries.

Another approach to conflict resolution is to randomly abort theattacker or defender (a policy called Randomized). Such a policy may becombined with a randomized backoff scheme to avoid unneeded contention.

However, making random choices, when selecting a transaction to abort,can result in aborting transactions that have completed “a lot of work”,which can waste resources. To avoid such waste, the amount of workcompleted on the transaction can be taken into account when determiningwhich transaction to abort. One measure of work could be a transaction'sage. Other methods include Oldest, Bulk TM, Size Matters, Karma, andPolka. Oldest is a simple timestamp method that aborts the youngertransaction in a conflict. Bulk TM uses this scheme. Size Matters islike Oldest but instead of transaction age, the number of read/writtenwords is used as the priority, reverting to Oldest after a fixed numberof aborts. Karma is similar, using the size of the write-set aspriority. Rollback then proceeds after backing off a fixed amount oftime. Aborted transactions keep their priorities after being aborted(hence the name Karma). Polka works like Karma but instead of backingoff a predefined amount of time, it backs off exponentially more eachtime.

Since aborting wastes work, it is logical to argue that stalling anattacker until the defender has finished their transaction would lead tobetter performance. Unfortunately, such a simple scheme easily leads todeadlock.

Deadlock avoidance techniques can be used to solve this problem. Greedyuses two rules to avoid deadlock. The first rule is, if a firsttransaction, T1, has lower priority than a second transaction, T0, or ifT1 is waiting for another transaction, then T1 aborts when conflictingwith T0. The second rule is, if T1 has higher priority than T0 and isnot waiting, then T0 waits until T1 commits, aborts, or starts waiting(in which case the first rule is applied). Greedy provides someguarantees about time bounds for executing a set of transactions. One EPdesign (Log TM) uses a CM policy similar to Greedy to achieve stallingwith conservative deadlock avoidance.

Example MESI coherency rules provide for four possible states in which acache line of a multiprocessor cache system may reside, M, E, S, and I,defined as follows:

Modified (M): The cache line is present only in the current cache, andis dirty; it has been modified from the value in main memory. The cacheis required to write the data back to main memory at some time in thefuture, before permitting any other read of the (no longer valid) mainmemory state. The write-back changes the line to the Exclusive state.

Exclusive (E): The cache line is present only in the current cache, butis clean; it matches main memory. It may be changed to the Shared stateat any time, in response to a read request. Alternatively, it may bechanged to the Modified state when writing to it.

Shared (S): Indicates that this cache line may be stored in other cachesof the machine and is “clean”; it matches the main memory. The line maybe discarded (changed to the Invalid state) at any time.

Invalid (I): Indicates that this cache line is invalid (unused).

TM coherency status indicators (R 132, W 138) may be provided for eachcache line, in addition to, or encoded in the MESI coherency bits. An R132 indicator indicates the current transaction has read from the dataof the cache line, and a W 138 indicator indicates the currenttransaction has written to the data of the cache line.

In another aspect of TM design, a system is designed using transactionalstore buffers. U.S. Pat. No. 6,349,361 titled “Methods and Apparatus forReordering and Renaming Memory References in a Multiprocessor ComputerSystem,” filed Mar. 31, 2000 and incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety, teaches a method for reordering and renaming memory referencesin a multiprocessor computer system having at least a first and a secondprocessor. The first processor has a first private cache and a firstbuffer, and the second processor has a second private cache and a secondbuffer. The method includes the steps of, for each of a plurality ofgated store requests received by the first processor to store a datum,exclusively acquiring a cache line that contains the datum by the firstprivate cache, and storing the datum in the first buffer. Upon the firstbuffer receiving a load request from the first processor to load aparticular datum, the particular datum is provided to the firstprocessor from among the data stored in the first buffer based on anin-order sequence of load and store operations. Upon the first cachereceiving a load request from the second cache for a given datum, anerror condition is indicated and a current state of at least one of theprocessors is reset to an earlier state when the load request for thegiven datum corresponds to the data stored in the first buffer.

The main implementation components of one such transactional memoryfacility are a transaction-backup register file for holdingpre-transaction GR (general register) content, a cache directory totrack the cache lines accessed during the transaction, a store cache tobuffer stores until the transaction ends, and firmware routines toperform various complex functions. In this section a detailedimplementation is described.

IBM zEnterprise EC12 Enterprise Server Embodiment

The IBM zEnterprise EC12 enterprise server introduces transactionalexecution (TX) in transactional memory, and is described in part in apaper, “Transactional Memory Architecture and Implementation for IBMSystem z” of Proceedings Pages 25-36 presented at MICRO-45, 1-5 Dec.2012, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, available from IEEE ComputerSociety Conference Publishing Services (CPS), which is incorporated byreference herein in its entirety.

Table 3 shows an example transaction. Transactions started with TBEGINare not assured to ever successfully complete with TEND, since they canexperience an aborting condition at every attempted execution, e.g., dueto repeating conflicts with other CPUs. This requires that the programsupport a fallback path to perform the same operationnon-transactionally, e.g., by using traditional locking schemes. Thisputs a significant burden on the programming and software verificationteams, especially where the fallback path is not automatically generatedby a reliable compiler.

TABLE 3 Example Transaction Code LHI R0,0 *initialize retry count=0 loopTBEGIN *begin transaction JNZ abort *go to abort code if CC1=0 LT R1,lock *load and test the fallback lock JNZ lckbzy *branch if lock busy .. . perform operation . . . TEND *end transaction . . .  . . .  . . .  .. . lckbzy TABORT *abort if lock busy; this *resumes after TBEGIN abortJO fallback *no retry if CC=3 AHI R0, 1 *increment retry count CIJNLR0,6, *give up after 6 attempts fallback PPA R0, TX *random delay basedon retry count . . . potentially wait for lock to become free . . . Jloop *jump back to retry fallback OBTAIN lock *using Compare&Swap . . .perform operation . . . RELEASE lock . . .  . . .  . . .  . . .

The requirement of providing a fallback path for aborted TransactionExecution (TX) transactions can be onerous. Many transactions operatingon shared data structures are expected to be short, touch only a fewdistinct memory locations, and use simple instructions only. For thosetransactions, the IBM zEnterprise EC12 introduces the concept ofconstrained transactions; under normal conditions, the CPU 114 (FIG. 2)assures that constrained transactions eventually end successfully,albeit without giving a strict limit on the number of necessary retries.A constrained transaction starts with a TBEGINC instruction and endswith a regular TEND. Implementing a task as a constrained ornon-constrained transaction typically results in very comparableperformance, but constrained transactions simplify software developmentby removing the need for a fallback path. IBM's Transactional Executionarchitecture is further described in z/Architecture, Principles ofOperation, Tenth Edition, SA22-7832-09 published September 2012 fromIBM, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

A constrained transaction starts with the TBEGINC instruction. Atransaction initiated with TBEGINC must follow a list of programmingconstraints; otherwise the program takes a non-filterableconstraint-violation interruption. Exemplary constraints may include,but not be limited to: the transaction can execute a maximum of 32instructions, all instruction text must be within 256 consecutive bytesof memory; the transaction contains only forward-pointing relativebranches (i.e., no loops or subroutine calls); the transaction canaccess a maximum of 4 aligned octowords (an octoword is 32 bytes) ofmemory; and restriction of the instruction-set to exclude complexinstructions like decimal or floating-point operations. The constraintsare chosen such that many common operations like doubly linkedlist-insert/delete operations can be performed, including the verypowerful concept of atomic compare-and-swap targeting up to 4 alignedoctowords. At the same time, the constraints were chosen conservativelysuch that future CPU implementations can assure transaction successwithout needing to adjust the constraints, since that would otherwiselead to software incompatibility.

TBEGINC mostly behaves like XBEGIN in TSX or TBEGIN on IBM's zEC12servers, except that the floating-point register (FPR) control and theprogram interruption filtering fields do not exist and the controls areconsidered to be zero. On a transaction abort, the instruction addressis set back directly to the TBEGINC instead of to the instruction after,reflecting the immediate retry and absence of an abort path forconstrained transactions.

Nested transactions are not allowed within constrained transactions, butif a TBEGINC occurs within a non-constrained transaction it is treatedas opening a new non-constrained nesting level just like TBEGIN would.This can occur, e.g., if a non-constrained transaction calls asubroutine that uses a constrained transaction internally.

Since interruption filtering is implicitly off, all exceptions during aconstrained transaction lead to an interruption into the operatingsystem (OS). Eventual successful finishing of the transaction relies onthe capability of the OS to page-in the at most 4 pages touched by anyconstrained transaction. The OS must also ensure time-slices long enoughto allow the transaction to complete.

TABLE 4 Transaction Code Example TBEGINC *begin constrained transaction. . . perform operation . . . TEND *end transaction

Table 4 shows the constrained-transactional implementation of the codein Table 3, assuming that the constrained transactions do not interactwith other locking-based code. No lock testing is shown therefore, butcould be added if constrained transactions and lock-based code weremixed.

When failure occurs repeatedly, software emulation is performed usingmillicode as part of system firmware. Advantageously, constrainedtransactions have desirable properties because of the burden removedfrom programmers.

With reference to FIG. 3, the IBM zEnterprise EC12 processor introducedthe transactional execution facility. The processor can decode 3instructions per clock cycle; simple instructions are dispatched assingle micro-ops, and more complex instructions are cracked intomultiple micro-ops. The micro-ops (Uops 232 b) are written into aunified issue queue 216, from where they can be issued out-of-order. Upto two fixed-point, one floating-point, two load/store, and two branchinstructions can execute every cycle. A Global Completion Table (GCT)232 holds every micro-op 232 b and a transaction nesting depth (TND) 232a. The GCT 232 is written in-order at decode time, tracks the executionstatus of each micro-op 232 b, and completes instructions when allmicro-ops 232 b of the oldest instruction group have successfullyexecuted.

The level 1 (L1) data cache 240 is a 96 KB (kilo-byte) 6-way associativecache with 256 byte cache-lines and 4 cycle use latency, coupled to aprivate 1 MB (mega-byte) 8-way associative 2nd-level (L2) data cache 268with 7 cycles use-latency penalty for L1 240 misses. The L1 240 cache isthe cache closest to a processor and Ln cache is a cache at the nthlevel of caching. Both L1 240 and L2 268 caches are store-through. Sixcores on each central processor (CP) chip share a 48 MB 3rd-levelstore-in cache, and six CP chips are connected to an off-chip 384 MB4th-level cache, packaged together on a glass ceramic multi-chip module(MCM). Up to 4 multi-chip modules (MCMs) can be connected to a coherentsymmetric multi-processor (SMP) system with up to 144 cores (not allcores are available to run customer workload).

Coherency is managed with a variant of the MESI protocol. Cache-linescan be owned read-only (shared) or exclusive; the L1 240 and L2 268 arestore-through and thus do not contain dirty lines. The L3 272 and L4caches (not shown) are store-in and track dirty states. Each cache isinclusive of all its connected lower level caches.

Coherency requests are called “cross interrogates” (XI) and are senthierarchically from higher level to lower-level caches, and between theL4s. When one core misses the L1 240 and L2 268 and requests the cacheline from its local L3 272, the L3 272 checks whether it owns the line,and if necessary sends an XI to the currently owning L2 268/L1 240 underthat L3 272 to ensure coherency, before it returns the cache line to therequestor. If the request also misses the L3 272, the L3 272 sends arequest to the L4 (not shown), which enforces coherency by sending XIsto all necessary L3s under that L4, and to the neighboring L4s. Then theL4 responds to the requesting L3 which forwards the response to the L2268/L1 240.

Note that due to the inclusivity rule of the cache hierarchy, sometimescache lines are XI'ed from lower-level caches due to evictions onhigher-level caches caused by associativity overflows from requests toother cache lines. These XIs can be called “LRU XIs”, where LRU standsfor least recently used.

Making reference to yet another type of XI requests, Demote-XIstransition cache-ownership from exclusive into read-only state, andExclusive-XIs transition cache ownership from exclusive into invalidstate. Demote-XIs and Exclusive-XIs need a response back to the XIsender. The target cache can “accept” the XI, or send a “reject”response if it first needs to evict dirty data before accepting the XI.The L1 240/L2 268 caches are store through, but may reject demote-XIsand exclusive XIs if they have stores in their store queues that need tobe sent to L3 before downgrading the exclusive state. A rejected XI willbe repeated by the sender. Read-only-XIs are sent to caches that own theline read-only; no response is needed for such XIs since they cannot berejected. The details of the SMP protocol are similar to those describedfor the IBM z10 by P. Mak, C. Walters, and G. Strait, in “IBM System z10processor cache subsystem microarchitecture”, IBM Journal of Researchand Development, Vol 53:1, 2009, which is incorporated by referenceherein in its entirety.

Transactional Instruction Execution

FIG. 3 depicts example components of an example transactional executionenvironment, including a CPU and caches/components with which itinteracts (such as those depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2). The instructiondecode unit 208 (IDU) keeps track of the current transaction nestingdepth 212 (TND). When the IDU 208 receives a TBEGIN instruction, thenesting depth 212 is incremented, and conversely decremented on TENDinstructions. The nesting depth 212 is written into the GCT 232 forevery dispatched instruction. When a TBEGIN or TEND is decoded on aspeculative path that later gets flushed, the IDU's 208 nesting depth212 is refreshed from the youngest GCT 232 entry that is not flushed.The transactional state is also written into the issue queue 216 forconsumption by the execution units, mostly by the Load/Store Unit (LSU)280, which also has an effective address calculator 236 included in theLSU 280. The TBEGIN instruction may specify a transaction diagnosticblock (TDB) for recording status information, should the transactionabort before reaching a TEND instruction.

Similar to the nesting depth, the IDU 208/GCT 232 collaboratively trackthe access register/floating-point register (AR/FPR) modification masksthrough the transaction nest; the IDU 208 can place an abort requestinto the GCT 232 when an AR/FPR-modifying instruction is decoded and themodification mask blocks that. When the instruction becomesnext-to-complete, completion is blocked and the transaction aborts.Other restricted instructions are handled similarly, including TBEGIN ifdecoded while in a constrained transaction, or exceeding the maximumnesting depth.

An outermost TBEGIN is cracked into multiple micro-ops depending on theGR-Save-Mask; each micro-op 232 b (including, for example uop 0, uop 1,and uop2) will be executed by one of the two fixed point units (FXUs)220 to save a pair of GRs 228 into a special transaction-backup registerfile 224, that is used to later restore the GR 228 content in case of atransaction abort. Also the TBEGIN spawns micro-ops 232 b to perform anaccessibility test for the TDB if one is specified; the address is savedin a special purpose register for later usage in the abort case. At thedecoding of an outermost TBEGIN, the instruction address and theinstruction text of the TBEGIN are also saved in special purposeregisters for a potential abort processing later on.

TEND and NTSTG are single micro-op 232 b instructions; NTSTG(non-transactional store) is handled like a normal store except that itis marked as non-transactional in the issue queue 216 so that the LSU280 can treat it appropriately. TEND is a no-op at execution time, theending of the transaction is performed when TEND completes.

As mentioned, instructions that are within a transaction are marked assuch in the issue queue 216, but otherwise execute mostly unchanged; theLSU 280 performs isolation tracking as described in the next section.

Since decoding is in-order, and since the IDU 208 keeps track of thecurrent transactional state and writes it into the issue queue 216 alongwith every instruction from the transaction, execution of TBEGIN, TEND,and instructions before, within, and after the transaction can beperformed out-of order. It is even possible (though unlikely) that TENDis executed first, then the entire transaction, and lastly the TBEGINexecutes. Program order is restored through the GCT 232 at completiontime. The length of transactions is not limited by the size of the GCT232, since general purpose registers (GRs) 228 can be restored from thebackup register file 224.

During execution, the program event recording (PER) events are filteredbased on the Event Suppression Control, and a PER TEND event is detectedif enabled. Similarly, while in transactional mode, a pseudo-randomgenerator may be causing the random aborts as enabled by the TransactionDiagnostics Control.

Tracking for Transactional Isolation

The Load/Store Unit 280 tracks cache lines that were accessed duringtransactional execution, and triggers an abort if an XI from another CPU(or an LRU-XI) conflicts with the footprint. If the conflicting XI is anexclusive or demote XI, the LSU 280 rejects the XI back to the L3 272 inthe hope of finishing the transaction before the L3 272 repeats the XI.This “stiff-arming” is very efficient in highly contended transactions.In order to prevent hangs when two CPUs stiff-arm each other, aXI-reject counter is implemented, which triggers a transaction abortwhen a threshold is met.

The L1 cache directory 240 is traditionally implemented with staticrandom access memories (SRAMs). For the transactional memoryimplementation, the valid bits 244 (64 rows×6 ways) of the directoryhave been moved into normal logic latches, and are supplemented with twomore bits per cache line: the TX-read 248 and TX-dirty 252 bits.

The TX-read 248 bits are reset when a new outermost TBEGIN is decoded(which is interlocked against a prior still pending transaction). TheTX-read 248 bit is set at execution time by every load instruction thatis marked “transactional” in the issue queue. Note that this can lead toover-marking if speculative loads are executed, for example on amispredicted branch path. The alternative of setting the TX-read 248 bitat load completion time was too expensive for silicon area, sincemultiple loads can complete at the same time, requiring many read-portson the load-queue.

Stores execute the same way as in non-transactional mode, but atransaction mark is placed in the store queue (STQ) 260 entry of thestore instruction. At write-back time, when the data from the STQ 260 iswritten into the L1 240, the TX-dirty bit 252 in the L1-directory 256 isset for the written cache line. Store write-back into the L1 240 occursonly after the store instruction has completed, and at most one store iswritten back per cycle. Before completion and write-back, loads canaccess the data from the STQ 260 by means of store-forwarding; afterwrite-back, the CPU 114 (FIG. 2) can access the speculatively updateddata in the L1 240. If the transaction ends successfully, the TX-dirtybits 252 of all cache-lines are cleared, and also the TX-marks of notyet written stores are cleared in the STQ 260, effectively turning thepending stores into normal stores.

On a transaction abort, all pending transactional stores are invalidatedfrom the STQ 260, even those already completed. All cache lines thatwere modified by the transaction in the L1 240, that is, have theTX-dirty bit 252 on, have their valid bits turned off, effectivelyremoving them from the L1 240 cache instantaneously.

The architecture requires that before completing a new instruction, theisolation of the transaction read- and write-set is maintained. Thisisolation is ensured by stalling instruction completion at appropriatetimes when XIs are pending; speculative out-of order execution isallowed, optimistically assuming that the pending XIs are to differentaddresses and not actually cause a transaction conflict. This designfits very naturally with the XI-vs-completion interlocks that areimplemented on prior systems to ensure the strong memory ordering thatthe architecture requires.

When the L1 240 receives an XI, L1 240 accesses the directory to checkvalidity of the XI'ed address in the L1 240, and if the TX-read bit 248is active on the XI'ed line and the XI is not rejected, the LSU 280triggers an abort. When a cache line with active TX-read bit 248 isLRU'ed from the L1 240, a special LRU-extension vector remembers foreach of the 64 rows of the L1 240 that a TX-read line existed on thatrow. Since no precise address tracking exists for the LRU extensions,any non-rejected XI that hits a valid extension row the LSU 280 triggersan abort. Providing the LRU-extension effectively increases the readfootprint capability from the L1-size to the L2-size and associativity,provided no conflicts with other CPUs 114 (FIGS. 1 and 2) against thenon-precise LRU-extension tracking causes aborts.

The store footprint is limited by the store cache size (the store cacheis discussed in more detail below) and thus implicitly by the L2 268size and associativity. No LRU-extension action needs to be performedwhen a TX-dirty 252 cache line is LRU'ed from the L1 240.

Store Cache

In prior systems, since the L1 240 and L2 268 are store-through caches,every store instruction causes an L3 272 store access; with now 6 coresper L3 272 and further improved performance of each core, the store ratefor the L3 272 (and to a lesser extent for the L2 268) becomesproblematic for certain workloads. In order to avoid store queuingdelays, a gathering store cache 264 had to be added, that combinesstores to neighboring addresses before sending them to the L3 272.

For transactional memory performance, it is acceptable to invalidateevery TX-dirty 252 cache line from the L1 240 on transaction aborts,because the L2 268 cache is very close (7 cycles L1 240 miss penalty) tobring back the clean lines. However, it would be unacceptable forperformance (and silicon area for tracking) to have transactional storeswrite the L2 268 before the transaction ends and then invalidate alldirty L2 268 cache lines on abort (or even worse on the shared L3 272).

The two problems of store bandwidth and transactional memory storehandling can both be addressed with the gathering store cache 264. Thecache 264 is a circular queue of 64 entries, each entry holding 128bytes of data with byte-precise valid bits. In non-transactionaloperation, when a store is received from the LSU 280, the store cache264 checks whether an entry exists for the same address, and if sogathers the new store into the existing entry. If no entry exists, a newentry is written into the queue, and if the number of free entries fallsunder a threshold, the oldest entries are written back to the L2 268 andL3 272 caches.

When a new outermost transaction begins, all existing entries in thestore cache are marked closed so that no new stores can be gathered intothem, and eviction of those entries to L2 268 and L3 272 is started.From that point on, the transactional stores coming out of the LSU 280STQ 260 allocate new entries, or gather into existing transactionalentries. The write-back of those stores into L2 268 and L3 272 isblocked, until the transaction ends successfully; at that pointsubsequent (post-transaction) stores can continue to gather intoexisting entries, until the next transaction closes those entries again.

The store cache 264 is queried on every exclusive or demote XI, andcauses an XI reject if the XI compares to any active entry. If the coreis not completing further instructions while continuously rejecting XIs,the transaction is aborted at a certain threshold to avoid hangs.

The LSU 280 requests a transaction abort when the store cache 264overflows. The LSU 280 detects this condition when it tries to send anew store that cannot merge into an existing entry, and the entire storecache 264 is filled with stores from the current transaction. The storecache 264 is managed as a subset of the L2 268: while transactionallydirty lines can be evicted from the L1 240, they have to stay residentin the L2 268 throughout the transaction. The maximum store footprint isthus limited to the store cache size of 64×128 bytes, and it is alsolimited by the associativity of the L2 268. Since the L2 268 is 8-wayassociative and has 512 rows, it is typically large enough to not causetransaction aborts.

If a transaction aborts, the store cache 264 is notified and all entriesholding transactional data are invalidated. The store cache 264 also hasa mark per doubleword (8 bytes) whether the entry was written by a NTSTGinstruction—those doublewords stay valid across transaction aborts.

Millicode-Implemented Functions

Traditionally, IBM mainframe server processors contain a layer offirmware called millicode which performs complex functions like certainCISC instruction executions, interruption handling, systemsynchronization, and RAS. Millicode includes machine dependentinstructions as well as instructions of the instruction set architecture(ISA) that are fetched and executed from memory similarly toinstructions of application programs and the operating system (OS).Firmware resides in a restricted area of main memory that customerprograms cannot access. When hardware detects a situation that needs toinvoke millicode, the instruction fetching unit 204 switches into“millicode mode” and starts fetching at the appropriate location in themillicode memory area. Millicode may be fetched and executed in the sameway as instructions of the instruction set architecture (ISA), and mayinclude ISA instructions.

For transactional memory, millicode is involved in various complexsituations. Every transaction abort invokes a dedicated millicodesub-routine to perform the necessary abort steps. The transaction-abortmillicode starts by reading special-purpose registers (SPRs) holding thehardware internal abort reason, potential exception reasons, and theaborted instruction address, which millicode then uses to store a TDB ifone is specified. The TBEGIN instruction text is loaded from an SPR toobtain the GR-save-mask, which is needed for millicode to know which GRs228 to restore.

The CPU 114 (FIG. 2) supports a special millicode-only instruction toread out the backup-GRs 224 and copy them into the main GRs 228. TheTBEGIN instruction address is also loaded from an SPR to set the newinstruction address in the PSW to continue execution after the TBEGINonce the millicode abort sub-routine finishes. That PSW may later besaved as program-old PSW in case the abort is caused by a non-filteredprogram interruption.

The TABORT instruction may be millicode implemented; when the IDU 208decodes TABORT, it instructs the instruction fetch unit to branch intoTABORT's millicode, from which millicode branches into the common abortsub-routine.

The Extract Transaction Nesting Depth (ETND) instruction may also bemillicoded, since it is not performance critical; millicode loads thecurrent nesting depth out of a special hardware register and places itinto a GR 228. The PPA instruction is millicoded; it performs theoptimal delay based on the current abort count provided by software asan operand to PPA, and also based on other hardware internal state.

For constrained transactions, millicode may keep track of the number ofaborts. The counter is reset to 0 on successful TEND completion, or ifan interruption into the OS occurs (since it is not known if or when theOS will return to the program). Depending on the current abort count,millicode can invoke certain mechanisms to improve the chance of successfor the subsequent transaction retry. The mechanisms involve, forexample, successively increasing random delays between retries, andreducing the amount of speculative execution to avoid encounteringaborts caused by speculative accesses to data that the transaction isnot actually using. As a last resort, millicode can broadcast to otherCPUs 114 (FIG. 2) to stop all conflicting work, retry the localtransaction, before releasing the other CPUs 114 to continue normalprocessing. Multiple CPUs 114 must be coordinated to not causedeadlocks, so some serialization between millicode instances ondifferent CPUs 114 is required.

Referring now to FIG. 4, an embodiment 400 executes 404 a beginninginstruction that initiates 424 a transactional execution of a set ofinstructions of a transaction of a program. The program may have avariety of instructions, and some or all of such instructions may bedesignated as part of the transaction. For example, the beginninginstruction executed 404 may be a TBEGIN instruction, which indicates tothe CPU 114 that other instructions following the TBEGIN and prior to aTEND instruction should be executed transactionally. According to anembodiment 400, the beginning instruction may specify a parameter or anoperand that designates 417 a storage location (“the designated storagelocation”) for use by the CPU 114 to store 412 TX performancecharacteristics of the transaction that the CPU 114 collects 408, asdescribed below, upon termination 410 of the transactional execution ofthe set of instructions. In other embodiments, the designated storagelocation for storing TX performance characteristics may be designated asa default value in the CPU architecture, or may be designated by otherinstructions of the ISA, including a transaction ending instruction(TEND). Other embodiments may define other stand-alone instructions, ormodified forms of existing instructions of the ISA, to specify thedesignated storage location. The designated storage location may be oneor more locations in memory, general/special/vector registers, or acombination thereof, including for example, as link-list.

Generally, TX performance characteristics may include information anddata regarding execution of a transaction that may be useful indetermining the transaction's performance. This may include, forexample, the CPU's performance during transactional execution of thetransaction. Information about a transaction's performance may beuseful, for example, in determining whether it is desirable to retryexecution of an aborted transaction, and if so, whether any data to beaccessed by the transaction should be prefetched prior to or duringsubsequent transactional executions of the transaction. The informationmay also be useful in determining whether transactional execution of atransaction meets a desired level of performance. For example, if atransaction's performance is less than a desired level, it may be moredesirable to cause the CPU to execute instructions of the transactionserially, outside of transactional execution mode.

Collecting 408 of the TX performance characteristics may be performed bythe CPU 114 using, for example, registers, caches, buffers,accumulators, or other internal or external components. Collecting 408of the TX performance characteristics may, in one embodiment, be in adiscrete and separate step for each such characteristic. For example,for each block of data loaded or stored to during a transaction, the L1cache 240 may be updated with an entry reflecting the block of data'saddress and the purpose for which it was accessed. Other informationabout the same block of data may be collected 408 in the same, or inother components of the CPU 114 architecture.

Collecting 408 of the TX performance characteristics may also beperformed using a Transaction Diagnostic Block (TDB). The TDB canprovide valuable information to a programmer to modify the transactioncode so as to reduce the likelihood of similar conflicts occurringagain. The same information may be used by Java®, for example, todynamically generate code that takes advantages of strengths of atransaction or its weaknesses, as suggested by the collected and storedTX performance characteristics.

The embodiment 400 may cease 452 the storing 412 upon a size of thestored TX performance characteristics reaching a maximum size (themaximum size may be set at a default value and may be modifiable by aprogram). This may be done, for example, where the CPU's 114 resourcescan accommodate a limited size of characteristics data, or where storingadditional characteristics data is not useful.

The embodiment 400 may also cause the collection of the TX performancecharacteristics to wrap 456 around from the last entry to the firstentry in a circular buffer, such that entries of earlier TX performancecharacteristics are overwritten in the circular buffer in favor of morerecent memory operand accesses. Under some circumstances, this approachmay be very useful; for example, where the CPU's conflict detectionpolicies regularly check for conflicts (e.g. under an eager pessimisticpolicy), an earlier storage access that has not resulted in a conflictmay not need tracking, whereas a later storage access that does resultin a conflict and a subsequent abort may provide much more valuableinformation to the CPU 114. As such, TX performance characteristicsregarding the earlier storage access(es) may not be as valuable and canbe overwritten to conserve CPU 114 resources, without a significant lossof valuable information.

According to an aspect of the embodiment 400, as transactional executionof the transaction proceeds, the CPU 114 may determine whether thetransaction should terminate. Termination may occur as a result ofaborting 420 transactional execution (for example, because of a detectedconflict between the read/write sets of the transaction and those ofanother CPU, regardless of whether the other CPU's storage accesses weretransactional or not), or as a result of executing a terminatinginstruction 416 (for example, TEND). Therefore, as the CPU 114 proceedswith transactional execution of the transaction, it may determinewhether it has reached an ending instruction 416, and, if so, proceed tostoring 412 TX performance characteristics in the designated storagelocation 117. The circumstances under which the termination occursdepend on the architecture of the CPU 114, including its versioning,conflict detection, and contention management policies, as described ingreat detail above. The termination may cause the TX performancecharacteristics that are maintained by the CPU as part of thetransaction's footprint (e.g., by the accumulator) to be stored in thedesignated storage location, as specified by the TBEGIN instruction oranother instruction specifying the designated storage location, asdescribed above.

The terminating instruction may designate 417 a storage location inwhich collected TX performance characteristics may be stored. If morethan one instruction have designated a storage location, then thestorage location designated by the last instruction may be used. Forexample, if both TBEGIN and TEND have designated a storage location, theone specified by TEND may be used. Alternatively, the storage locationdesignated by the beginning instruction may be used. Other combinationsare possible, including storing in both locations, or selecting astorage location from amongst the two or more designated storagelocation, according to a predefined selection hierarchy.

According to an aspect of the disclosure, the CPU 114 may determinewhether the transaction should abort 420. If the transaction aborts, theCPU 114 may proceed to store the collected data in the designatedstorage location 117 (whether designated by TBEGIN, TEND, or anotherinstruction). If the transaction does not abort, and no endinginstruction (e.g., TEND) has been executed, the CPU 114 may continue toexecute instructions of the transaction and continue to collect 408 TXperformance characteristics of the transaction during transactionalexecution.

The collected TX performance characteristics may be stored 412 in thedesignated storage location (for example, designated by the beginninginstruction, executed 404 by the CPU 114). According to an embodiment ofthe present disclosure, TX performance characteristics are stored(accumulated) in a temporary buffer during transaction execution,wherein the accumulated characteristics are later saved when thetransaction ends or aborts. In one embodiment, storing 412 of the TXperformance characteristics may be by way of storing 428 a list ofobjects in the designated storage location. The maximum size 432 of thelist of objects may be a fixed value, or it may be determined by theprogram. The list may include one or more objects, or entries, and eachsuch object or entry may include, for example, data that represents oneor more transactional TX performance characteristics for a particularstorage location accessed by a transaction (for example, an entry mayinclude a bit-string wherein each bit or each set of bits corresponds toa given transactional TX performance access characteristic of thestorage location). Alternatively, each one of multiple entriescollectively may represent TX performance characteristics of a givenstorage access (for example, the first entry of the set of entries mayrepresent the address of the accessed storage location, the second entrymay represent its purpose value, etc.).

According to an exemplary aspect of the present disclosure, the TXperformance characteristics that may be collected, and subsequentlystored in the list of objects (or stored in another way) may include anyone or more of the following, for one or more of the storage locationsaccessed during TX of the corresponding transaction: an address of thestorage location(s) accessed; a count of a number of times the storagelocation is accessed; a purpose value indicating whether the storagelocation is accessed for a fetch, store, or update operation; a count ofa number of times the storage location is accessed for one or more of afetch, store, or update operation; a translation mode in which thestorage location is accessed (including, for example: real mode orvirtual mode, or any of the primary-, secondary-, home-, or AR-specifiedtranslation modes); an addressing mode (for example, 24-, 31-, or 64-bitaddressing modes); a duration of execution of the transaction; a countof storage accesses of a transaction; a count of retries oftransactional execution of a transaction (which may be a constrainedtransaction) before successful completion; a count of executedinstructions of a transaction prior to termination of the transaction;whether and how many times a transaction enters a particular memoryspace; and a listing of what modes of execution the transaction enters,and for how many times (e.g., a read-only mode of execution). Other TXperformance characteristics collected and stored may include whether andhow many times a particular storage access causes a transaction abort,and for what reason (i.e., whether the storage access causes a conflictwith read/write sets of other transactions).

In the case of the duration of execution of the transaction, listedabove, the duration may correspond to an amount of time between thestart of execution of the transaction and the end of execution of thetransaction (which may be at an abort or a successful ending of thetransaction), as measured, for example, by a CPU clock. As a furtherexample, the duration may refer to the number of CPU cycles used toexecute the transaction. This information may be useful, for example, todetermine whether the time/CPU cycles taken up for transactionalexecution of the transaction is desirable, and whether the CPU shouldoperate differently. As this information changes during execution of atransaction, the CPU may provide the information to the accumulator thattracks and updates these metrics.

In the case of the count of storage accesses of a transaction, listedabove, this performance characteristic may include a different count foreach type of storage access, such as a load and a store. For example,each time that the CPU loads data as part of execution of thetransaction, the CPU may signal to the accumulator to update a count ofload accesses. For example, this may be accomplished by the CPUsignaling to the accumulator each time that a read-bit of a cache lineis set, to increment a read storage access count. This information maybe useful, for example, in determining the size of a transaction'sstorage access footprint, and the storage spaces that are accessed.Again, one possible benefit of tracking this information may be toimplement a desired prefetch policy whereby some storage accesses of atransaction may be carried out prior to or as part of transactionalexecution.

In the case of the count of retries of transactional execution of atransaction (which may be a constrained transaction) before successfulcompletion, listed above, the count may be maintained by the accumulatorand updated each time by the CPU signaling to the accumulator that thetransaction is being executed. For example, each time a TBEGIN (orTBEGINC) instruction of a transaction is executed, its counter, whichmay be maintained by the accumulator, may be updated by the CPU. Thisinformation may be useful, for example, where a transaction is abortingmore than a desirable number of times, such that transactional executionis no longer desirable. This information may also be useful where theCPU may prefetch data for a transaction when a corresponding retry countfor the transaction indicates that it has been executed unsuccessfullymore than a desirable number of iterations.

TX performance characteristics of a transaction may also include a countof executed instructions of a transaction prior to termination of thetransaction. This information may be useful, for example, for the CPU todetermine whether transactional execution of the transaction iswasteful, where more than an optimal number of instructions are executedprior to a transaction abort. For example, each time an instruction isfetched for execution, the CPU may also signal to the accumulator toincrement a corresponding count.

Whether and how many times a transaction enters a particular memoryspace, listed above, may correspond to, for example, IBM'sz/Architecture®, which describes four types of virtual address spacesthat may be accessible by a program: primary, secondary, home, andaccess-register-specified address spaces. There are four correspondingtypes of address-space control (ASC) that the program can select:primary, secondary, home, and AR address-space modes. An authorizedprogram may bypass virtual addressing and specify real addressing mode.Accordingly, in one embodiment of the disclosure, the CPU may incrementa count corresponding to a given ASC in one or more instances whereexecution of the transaction causes a storage access to an address inthat ASC.

Termination 416 of the transaction may occur as a result of execution ofa terminating instruction (for example, a TEND instruction).Alternatively, termination 420 of the transaction may occur as a resultof aborting the transaction (for example, where there is a conflictbetween the read/write sets of the transaction and those of another CPU,regardless of whether the other CPU's storage accesses weretransactional or not). The circumstances under which the termination 416or the termination 420 occur depend on the architecture of the CPU,including its versioning, conflict detection, and contention managementpolicies, as described in great detail above. The termination 416 or thetermination 420 cause the TX performance characteristics that aremaintained by the CPU as part of the transaction's footprint to bestored in the designated storage location, as specified by the TBEGIN404 instruction or another instruction specifying the designated storagelocation, as described above.

In circumstances where termination of TX of the transaction occurs 416as a result of execution of a terminating instruction, the terminatinginstruction (e.g. TEND) may specify 417 the storage location in whichthe collected storage-access characteristics are to be stored.

According to an aspect of the embodiment 400, the CPU 114 may use the TXperformance characteristics, stored in the designated storage location,to prefetch corresponding cache lines in a subsequent execution of thetransaction. For example, where the transaction aborts due to a conflictbetween the transaction and storage accesses by another CPU (regardlessof whether the other CPU's accesses are transactional or not), the CPU114 may look to the stored TX performance characteristics which cacheline(s) accessed by the transaction caused a conflict with the secondtransaction, resulting in the transaction's abort. Since retryingexecution of the transaction may result in repeated aborts, the CPU 114may prefetch memory locations associated with the offending cache linesbefore retrying transactional execution of the transaction, so that thetransaction's execution occurs more quickly, shortening the duration oftransactional execution and lessening the likelihood that the otherCPU's storage accesses can perform conflicting operations on theoffending cache lines. In other embodiments, such TX performancecharacteristics may be included in the Transaction Diagnostic Block(TDB) which can provide valuable information to a programmer to modifythe transaction code so as to reduce the likelihood of similar conflictsoccurring in subsequent transactional accesses. The same information maybe used by Java™, for example, to dynamically generate code that takesadvantage of strengths of transactional execution or its weaknesses, assuggested by the collected and stored TX performance characteristics.

In related embodiments, the TX performance characteristics may behelpful to the CPU 114 for determining which storage locations or whichaccess patterns cause the least number of conflicts. The CPU 114 (or,for example, a programmer) may use such statistics to schedule othertransactions more efficiently. In one example, where the storedcharacteristics show that a particular location is accessed only once,the CPU 114 may determine that prefetching that particular location infuture executions is not necessary as the particular location isunlikely to be at the root of a transaction abort. Therefore, the CPU114 may instead focus its prefetching on other more highly contestedstorage locations.

The embodiment 400 may encode 444 the stored TX performancecharacteristics in 24-bit, 31-bit, or 64-bit addresses depending on theparticular address space of a given cache line being accessed. Inencoding 444 the stored TX performance characteristics, the embodiment400 may eliminate 448 insignificant bits of the correspondingaddress(es), thereby saving valuable storage space and reducing the sizestorage access statistics, and therefore, reducing the size of thetransaction's footprint. Additional space/size efficiencies may beaccomplishing by encoding 450 the TX performance characteristicsrelative to a base address.

According to one exemplary embodiment, TX performance characteristics ofa transaction may be tracked by the CPU using, for example, anaccumulator in communication with the CPU and the memory hierarchy ofthe transactional execution environment, including, for example, caches,registers, and main memory components. The accumulator may be acomponent of the CPU configured to maintain data such as counters,addresses, and other information, by way of registers, caches, etc., ormay be a separate component of a computer system encompassing the CPU.For any given transaction, the accumulator may accumulate performancedata for one or more executions of the transaction over time using datafrom the CPU's and/or other system components, including, for example,special register values, cache contents, etc.

In circumstances where termination of TX of the transaction occurs 416as a result of execution of a terminating instruction, the terminatinginstruction (e.g. TEND) may specify 416 b the storage location in whichthe collected TX performance characteristics are to be stored.

Storing 412 of the TX performance characteristics may be by way ofstoring a list of objects in the designated storage location. The sizeof the list of objects may be a fixed value, or it may be determined bythe program.

FIG. 5 illustrates execution of an exemplary beginning instruction 502that commences transactional execution of a transaction, wherein thebeginning instruction 502 causes the CPU 114 to collect memory operandaccess characteristics in a storage location designated by the beginninginstruction 502. The beginning instruction 502 may include, among othercomponents, an OpCode 504A/504B and an operand 508A/508B.

The embodiment depicted in FIG. 5 shows two examples of a beginninginstruction 502: the first example includes a TBEGIN OpCode 504A and anoperand 508A that designates a register value. In this first example,the TBEGIN OpCode 504A signals to the CPU 114 that a transaction begininstruction should be executed. The storage location in which the memoryoperand access characteristics should be stored is determined by the CPU114 by obtaining an address stored in the register that is specified bythe operand 508A.

In the second example of a beginning instruction 502 depicted in FIG. 5,the beginning instruction 502 includes a TBEGIN OpCode 504B, and a baseregister and displacement operand value 508B. In this example, thestorage location in which the memory operand access characteristicsshould be stored is determined by the CPU 114 by obtaining an addressstored in the location indicated by the specified base register and thedisplacement value.

Other embodiments of the present disclosure may use additional/differentaddressing forms to designate the storage location in which the memoryoperand access characteristics should be stored, without departing fromthe spirit or scope of the present disclosure.

In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 5, the CPU 114 may execute one ormore such beginning instructions 502 (for example, in nestedtransactions) by, for example, decoding the instruction via the IDU(FIG. 3) and placing the beginning instruction 502 in the Issue Queue216 (FIG. 3). The Issue Queue 216 may communicate the instructions tothe LSU 280, the LSU 280 having an effective Address Calculator 236 toperform the required addressing operations of the CPU 114.Alternatively, the address may be processed by the FXU 220 (FIG. 3)which may have ultimate responsibility for address calculations by theCPU 114 (e.g., where an address is to be computed as the sum of twovalues stored in two registers). In the case where the AddressCalculator 236 performs the addressing, the LSU 280 may then look to theL1 cache 240 to determine whether the calculated address has acorresponding entry in the L1 240 cache. If not, the CPU 114 may look tohigher level caches, shared caches outside the CPU 114, and ultimately,in memory. For example, the designated storage location may be alocation in memory 530. As the transaction is executed transactionallyby the CPU 114, its footprint (i.e., a record of the transaction'sread/write operations) may be maintained, for example, by the LSU 280 inthe L1 cache 240. Each storage location/address accessed by thetransaction may be added to the L1 cache, with appropriate read/writebits set to indicate the purpose for which the address was accessed.Count-bits may be employed in each entry of the L1 cache to indicate,for each of the read/write types of accesses, how many times such accessis made. Additional bits may be employed to indicate additional storagecharacteristics.

The state machine may be part of the LSU 280 functionality, or part ofanother component of the CPU operatively coupled with the LSU 280. Insuch instances, the state machine (or the millicode, in thatimplementation), may first look to the L1 240 cache in the LSU 280 todetermine whether an address to be processed already has a correspondingentry in the L1 240 cache. XI operations may be initiated as describedin detail in connection with FIG. 3. Whether accesses cause conflictsdepend on the conflict detection and contention management policies ofthe CPU 114.

According to an exemplary and non-limiting embodiment of the presentdisclosure, the decoding of the beginning instruction 502 may beperformed by hardware, firmware, or software. As described above, thebeginning instruction 502 may include an OpCode 504, and one or moreoperands 508 that designate locations in storage. A storage-designatingoperand 508 may be in a register, a base register and displacement, orin another form of addressing. The operand 508 may directly designatethe address of a header entry 544 of a List 540 in storage, and TXperformance characteristics data may be stored in the first entry 560and additional entries 564 of the List 540.

Alternatively, the operand 508 may designate some other structure instorage, such as a transaction diagnostic block (TDB) 531, that containsan address 534 of the header entry 544 of the List 540. Alternatively,the List 540 may be an extension of the transaction diagnostic blockitself, or designated by some other means. The first entry of the List540 may be the header entry 544, which may include a series ofaddresses. The series of addresses of the header entry 544 may include,for example, the address of a next-available entry 548 in the List 540where memory operand access characteristics may be stored. Optionally,the header entry 544 may include the address 552 of the first non-headerentry in the List 540.

Alternatively, the address of the first non-header entry 560 may beassumed to be that of the entry immediately following the header entry544. Optionally, the header entry 544 may contain the address 556 of anend of the List 540 which may be the address immediately following thelast byte of the last entry. If the List 540 is implemented in a blockof storage having an integral size and alignment, such as a 4 K-bytepage, the first non-header entry may be assumed to be the entryimmediately following the header entry 544, and the last entry may bethe last available space in the 4 K-byte page.

The header entry 544 may include, without limitation, such informationas the size of the list, a location of a current entry 544/560 (eitheran address or an offset value from the start of the list, and/or anindication of whether it is to be a one-pass or wrap-around list). Theheader may also include indications of which of a variety of measurablememory operand access characteristics that are to be recorded. In such acase, unrecorded memory operand access characteristics may not need tobe included in a list entry, and therefore its size may be variable, anddepend on an indication in the header entry. Alternatively, thecollected memory operand access characteristics may be a single entrythat contain accumulators of memory operand access characteristics forthe given transaction. For example, how many total invocations, thetotal duration, number of aborts, etc. for the transactional load orstore or other storage access.

With continued reference to FIG. 5, the CPU 114 may also track the TXperformance characteristics using an accumulator 532 component thatreceives TX performance characteristics from the CPU duringtransactional execution and updates corresponding values that are storedby the accumulator, the CPU, and or another component of thearchitecture. The accumulator may be part of the CPU structure, or partof the memory hierarchy of the system of which the CPU is a part (e.g.,main memory 530, caches such as the L1 Cache 240 and the L2 Cache 268,etc.). For example, each time a storage location is accessed, theaccumulator may generate an entry in the List 540 corresponding to theaddress of the storage location, or update an existing entry, and addthe TX performance characteristics that are available for the storageaccess. The accumulator 532 may, for example, perform one or more of thefollowing operations with respect to the entry corresponding to thestorage location accessed:

-   -   increment an access count of the storage location;    -   increment an access count corresponding to the particular        purpose for which the location was accessed, where, for example,        each purpose type has a corresponding count;    -   where the storage location is accessed more than once for more        than one purpose, update the purpose value to reflect the most        significant access type. For example, store and update        operations may be defined as more significant than a load, and a        store operation may be defined as more significant than an        update operation.        The accumulator 532 may also perform, without limitation, the        following operations:    -   increment a time value measuring the duration of transactional        execution of a transaction, including, for example, a real time        value or a number of clock cycles;    -   increment a count of retries of a transaction before successful        completion or before aborting;    -   a count of the number of instructions executed prior to        successful completion or before aborting;        The CPU may store the values that are determined/maintained by        the accumulator into the designated storage space at an ending        of the transaction (e.g., at an ending of the transaction or at        an abort).

With continued reference to FIG. 5, upon an ending of the transaction(through an ending instruction or an abort), the LSU 280 may store theTX performance characteristics, from the location where they have beencollected, in the designated storage location, for example, the memory530 location designated by the beginning instruction 502. The memory 530location may then be recorded in a register (special, general, orvector) that can be accessed by the CPU 114, for example, in subsequentretries of the transaction.

With continued reference to FIG. 5, entries of The List 540 may includeone or more entries 560/564 (also referred to as objects) having anaddress field (which may be 24-, 31-, and/or 64-bit addresses of storagelocations accessed while in transactional execution, or the addressesmay be relative to the instruction pointer designating thetransaction-beginning or transaction-ending instructions, and/orrelative addresses), size bits, purpose bits, and “stats” bits (whichmay correspond to other statistics or characteristics maintained byembodiments of the present disclosure). In one embodiment, the purposebits may include 2 bits having two-bit encodings: ‘00’, ‘01’, ‘10’(wherein a further possible two-bit encoding of ‘11’ may be unassigned),each corresponding to read, write or update purpose values,respectively. Each purpose bit may have a corresponding set of bits inthe stats bits. For example, the read purpose bit may be associated withthree stats bits, such that the stats bits may be incremented up to 8times, indicating that the corresponding cache line was read at least 8times during the execution of the transaction. If the address wasaccessed more than 8 times, such additional accessed may be ignored (forexample, it may be important to a CPU 114 that an address is accessed atleast 8 times, but not important how many times more the address hasbeen accessed). This list 540 may be maintained, for example, in the L1240 cache during execution of the transaction, and recorded in thedesignated storage location (such as the memory 530) upon termination ofthe transaction (as described in connection with the embodiment 400,above).

Referring now to FIG. 6, the TX characteristics of the transaction, asmaintained by embodiments of the present disclosure (such as thosedescribed in FIGS. 4 and 5), may include a List 540 of objects 555. Thelist 540 may include one or more entries (e.g., bit-strings) thatindicate a transaction ID identifying the particular transaction thatthe entry/object 555 pertains to; current CPU time used to execute thecorresponding transaction at its present execution attempt; a cumulativeCPU time used by the corresponding transaction over repeated executionsof the transaction (i.e., how much CPU time this transaction has usedwithout completing); a number of storage accesses of the transaction;current clock cycles used by the transactions; and cumulative clockcycles used by the transaction. This list 540 may be maintained, forexample, in the L1 240 cache during execution of the transaction, andrecorded in the designated storage location (such as the memory 530)upon termination of the transaction (as described in connection with theembodiment 400, above).

Referring now to FIGS. 7-8, embodiments of the present disclosure maydistinguish between characteristics available upon an abort of thetransaction versus a successful completion of execution. Accordingly,successful-completion cases may contain statistics that have relativelyroutine (e.g. location of TEND) and may be stored in a locationspecified by a TEND instruction, whereas the failure/abort cases mayinclude statistics that are more significant to resolving failures andimproving performance (e.g. reason for abort; if a conflict, the storagelocation thereof; if a program interruption, then which interruption,etc.). There may also be some common statistics for both success andfailure cases (e.g. location of TBEGIN, duration in clock time, CPUtime, or cycle count, etc.), number of cache lines accessed for fetch,store, or update, and other information.

Accordingly, FIG. 7 depicts an example of a List 540 having one moreentries 555A. The statistics collected in the List 540 and the locationin which they should be stored may be designated by a TEND instruction,and contain fields of: transaction ID, current CPU time, cumulative CPUtime, the location of the TEND instruction, a number of storage accessfor each type of access (fetch, store, update), a current clock cyclescount, and a cumulative clock cycles count. FIG. 8, on the other hand,depicts an exemplary List 540 having one or more entries 555B (thestatistic types and storage location of which may be specified by aTBEGIN instruction) that includes the statistics of the list in FIG. 7(although no overlap is necessary) and may additionally include thefollowing statistics: an abort code, an address of a conflicting datablock, an interruption code, and a transaction ID of a conflictingtransaction.

In embodiments where both a TBEGIN instruction and a corresponding TENDinstruction each specify a statistics block, they may be implemented asfollows. In one example, the TBEGIN specified statistics block maycontain just statistics designated as relating to aborts, whereas theTEND specified statistics block may contain only those statistics thatpertain to a successful completion of the transaction. In anotherexample, when both instructions specify a statistics block, a policyfavoring one over the other may be implemented. Additional combinationsof these options are possible.

Referring now to FIGS. 9-10, a TBEGIN instruction may specify a list(e.g., the List 540 in FIG. 5-8) as part of or in conjunction with atransaction diagnostic block (TDB). For example, as depicted in FIG. 9,the TBEGIN instruction may be in the format “TBEGIN D₁(B₁),I₂”. Thefirst operand in this example includes the displacement (D₁) and baseregister (B₁) fields, and the second operand includes the immediate I₂field. An assembler programmer may code the first or second operandusing a symbol which the assembler program would resolve into itsconstituent parts. For example, if the first operand is a symbol and thesecond operand is a hexadecimal constant, the programmer may code:

TBEGIN TDB_ADDRESS,X′C309′

and ‘E560’ (FIG. 9) may be an operation code (OpCode) for thisinstruction; bit position indicators show exemplary bit positions of thefields of the instruction. In this example, the first operand designatesthe location of the TDB that is present only when the base register (B₁)designates a register other than zero.

The above instruction format may be used under the following exemplarycircumstances. The TDB designated by the first operand is extended toinclude the various statistics being harvested. The TDB designated bythe first operand contains a pointer to the various statistics beingharvested. An alternate format for the first operand may be specified,such that the first operand now contains the statistics block. A nonzeropointer in the statistics block may designate the TDB. There may beunused bits in the 12 field that may be used to indicate that analternate format operand is being used. It may be more desirable, thoughnot necessary, to use the third of these formats, as the first tworequire that a diagnostic block be present. In some cases, however, adiagnostic block may not be present except during a program'sdevelopment.

Referring now to FIG. 10, an alternate exemplary format may specify twostorage operands, and an immediate field. The instruction may be codedas “TBEGIN D₁(B₁),D₂(B₂),Id₃”. In the depicted example, the OpCode andthe immediate field 13 may be contained in 8 bits each. For example, aprogrammer may code this as:

TBEGIN TDB_ADDRESS,PARM_LST_ADDRESS,X′69′

This format again allows the list to be indicated in conjunction withthe TDB.

Referring now to FIG. 11, a computing device 1000 may include respectivesets of internal components 800 and external components 900. Each of thesets of internal components 800 includes one or more processors 820; oneor more computer-readable RAMs 822; one or more computer-readable ROMs824 on one or more buses 826; one or more operating systems 828; one ormore software applications (e.g., device driver modules); and one ormore computer-readable tangible storage devices 830. The one or moreoperating systems 828 and device driver modules 840 are stored on one ormore of the respective computer-readable tangible storage devices 830for execution by one or more of the respective processors 820 via one ormore of the respective RAMs 822 (which typically include cache memory).In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 11, each of the computer-readabletangible storage devices 830 is a magnetic disk storage device of aninternal hard drive. Alternatively, each of the computer-readabletangible storage devices 830 is a semiconductor storage device such asROM 824, EPROM, flash memory or any other computer-readable tangiblestorage device that can store a computer program and digitalinformation.

Each set of internal components 800 also includes a R/W drive orinterface 832 to read from and write to one or more computer-readabletangible storage devices 936 such as a thin provisioning storage device,CD-ROM, DVD, SSD, memory stick, magnetic tape, magnetic disk, opticaldisk or semiconductor storage device. The R/W drive or interface 832 maybe used to load the device driver 840 firmware, software, or microcodeto tangible storage device 936 to facilitate communication withcomponents of computing device 1000.

Each set of internal components 800 may also include network adapters(or switch port cards) or interfaces 836 such as a TCP/IP adapter cards,wireless WI-FI interface cards, or 3G or 4G wireless interface cards orother wired or wireless communication links. The operating system 828that is associated with computing device 1000, can be downloaded tocomputing device 1000 from an external computer (e.g., server) via anetwork (for example, the Internet, a local area network or wide areanetwork) and respective network adapters or interfaces 836. From thenetwork adapters (or switch port adapters) or interfaces 836 andoperating system 828 associated with computing device 1000 are loadedinto the respective hard drive 830 and network adapter 836. The networkmay comprise copper wires, optical fibers, wireless transmission,routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge servers.

Each of the sets of external components 900 can include a computerdisplay monitor 920, a keyboard 930, and a computer mouse 934. Externalcomponents 900 can also include touch screens, virtual keyboards, touchpads, pointing devices, and other human interface devices. Each of thesets of internal components 800 also includes device drivers 840 tointerface to computer display monitor 920, keyboard 930 and computermouse 934. The device drivers 840, R/W drive or interface 832 andnetwork adapter or interface 836 comprise hardware and software (storedin storage device 830 and/or ROM 824).

Various embodiments of the present disclosure may be implemented in adata processing system suitable for storing and/or executing programcode that includes at least one processor coupled directly or indirectlyto memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements include,for instance, local memory employed during actual execution of theprogram code, bulk storage, and cache memory which provide temporarystorage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number oftimes code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution.

Input/Output or I/O devices (including, but not limited to, keyboards,displays, pointing devices, DASD, tape, CDs, DVDs, thumb drives andother memory media, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directlyor through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also becoupled to the system to enable the data processing system to becomecoupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storagedevices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cablemodems, and Ethernet cards are just a few of the available types ofnetwork adapters.

The present invention may be a system, a method, and/or a computerprogram product. The computer program product may include a computerreadable storage medium (or media) having computer readable programinstructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of thepresent invention.

The computer readable storage medium can be a tangible device that canretain and store instructions for use by an instruction executiondevice. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but isnot limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device,an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, asemiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of theforegoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of thecomputer readable storage medium includes the following: a portablecomputer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), aread-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROMor Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portablecompact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD),a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such aspunch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructionsrecorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. Acomputer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construedas being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freelypropagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagatingthrough a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulsespassing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmittedthrough a wire.

Computer readable program instructions described herein can bedownloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computerreadable storage medium or to an external computer or external storagedevice via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, awide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprisecopper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wirelesstransmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/oredge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in eachcomputing/processing device receives computer readable programinstructions from the network and forwards the computer readable programinstructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium withinthe respective computing/processing device.

Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations ofthe present invention may be assembler instructions,instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions,machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions,state-setting data, or either source code or object code written in anycombination of one or more programming languages, including an objectoriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++ or the like, andconventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C”programming language or similar programming languages. The computerreadable program instructions may execute entirely on the user'scomputer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone softwarepackage, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computeror entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario,the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through anytype of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide areanetwork (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer(for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider).In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example,programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), orprogrammable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readableprogram instructions by utilizing state information of the computerreadable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry,in order to perform aspects of the present invention.

Aspects of the present invention are described herein with reference toflowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus(systems), and computer program products according to embodiments of theinvention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchartillustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in theflowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented bycomputer readable program instructions.

These computer readable program instructions may be provided to aprocessor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, orother programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, suchthat the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computeror other programmable data processing apparatus, create means forimplementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or blockdiagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructionsmay also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can directa computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or otherdevices to function in a particular manner, such that the computerreadable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises anarticle of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects ofthe function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram blockor blocks.

The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto acomputer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other deviceto cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer,other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computerimplemented process, such that the instructions which execute on thecomputer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement thefunctions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block orblocks.

The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate thearchitecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementationsof systems, methods, and computer program products according to variousembodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in theflowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portionof instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions forimplementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternativeimplementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of theorder noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in successionmay, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks maysometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon thefunctionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of theblock diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocksin the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implementedby special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specifiedfunctions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardwareand computer instructions.

The flowchart and block diagrams in the FIGS. herein, illustrate thearchitecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementationsof systems, methods and computer program products according to variousembodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in theflowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portionof instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions forimplementing the specified logical function(s). It should also be notedthat, in some alternative implementations, the functions noted in theblock may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, twoblocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantiallyconcurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverseorder, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be notedthat each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, andcombinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchartillustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-basedsystems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations ofspecial purpose hardware and computer instructions.

Although one or more examples have been provided herein, these are onlyexamples. Many variations are possible without departing from the spiritof the present disclosure. For instance, processing environments otherthan the examples provided herein may include and/or benefit from one ormore aspects of the present disclosure. Further, the environment neednot be based on the z/Architecture®, but instead can be based on otherarchitectures offered by, for instance, IBM®, Intel®, Sun Microsystems,as well as others. Yet further, the environment can include multipleprocessors, be partitioned, and/or be coupled to other systems, asexamples.

As used herein, the term “obtaining” includes, but is not limited to,fetching, receiving, having, providing, being provided, creating,developing, etc.

The capabilities of one or more aspects of the present disclosure can beimplemented in software, firmware, hardware, or some combinationthereof. At least one program storage device readable by a machineembodying at least one program of instructions executable by the machineto perform the capabilities of the present disclosure can be provided.

Although preferred embodiments have been depicted and described indetail herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant artthat various modifications, additions, substitutions and the like can bemade without departing from the spirit of the disclosure, and these are,therefore, considered to be within the scope of the disclosure, asdefined in the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer implemented method for collectingtransactional execution (TX) performance characteristics of atransaction in a TX environment, the method comprising: initiating, by aprocessor, a transactional execution of the transaction; collecting, bythe processor, TX performance characteristics of the transaction duringthe transactional execution; and storing the collected TX performancecharacteristics in a specified location based on any one of successfullyending the transaction and aborting the transaction, wherein thespecified location is specified by an instruction of the transaction. 2.The method of claim 1, wherein the TX performance characteristicincludes any one or more of a duration of transactional execution of thetransaction, a count of storage accesses by the transaction, and a countof retries of the transaction before successful completion.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the TX performance characteristics include TXperformance characteristics for a single execution of the transaction.4. The method of claim 1, wherein the transaction is a constrainedtransaction.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the storing is performedbased on ending the transaction.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein theinstruction is any one of a transaction begin instruction and atransaction end instruction.